What are the harmful after effects caused by mining, oil extraction and hydroelectric dams?

As the human race multiplies in numbers, Man’s need for more living space, wood, fuel, and other resources remains unsatisfied. Rainforests are treasure houses of varied resources. These resources are made available for human use by mining, oil extraction, and construction of dams for power.

Mining is done in places that have rich deposits of valuable minerals. The dense structure of rainforests makes it difficult to access such mineral hotspots. Trees and other natural resources which obstruct accessibility are then wiped out to construct roads. Trees also provide charcoal, a much-needed raw material in the iron ore minefields. Gold mining is the deadliest of all. Harmful mercury needed for gold extraction enters uncontrollably into the soil and water bodies, destroying the plant and aquatic world in and around.

Oil extraction comes along with many similar threats. Along with forest destruction, it also causes oil spillage and release of harmful by-products into the air and water channels, causing severe harm to the organic world.

Hydroelectric power is affordable, clean, and an excellent form of renewable energy. However, the harnessing of this energy form comes along with its demerits too. The construction of large hydroelectric dams results in flooding. Large acres of rainforest land get submerged or washed away. Trees clog and decay in these waters and results in the perishing of thousands of plant and animal life.

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Why is it said that pet food and palm kernel meals contribute to rainforest destruction?

Do you own a pet dog or cat at home? What do you feed them? If your answer is pet food, then you need to do a little rethinking.

Cattle feed and pet meals are a curse to the rainforest ecosystem.

How is this? Palm oil, as we know, is an essential ingredient in the food industry and is extracted from the fruit of the palm tree. Palm fruits have a nut-like centre called kernel that is rich in protein. These protein-rich kernels appear as by-products and are chopped and mashed up to make palm-kernel cakes, a chief ingredient used in pet food.

Oil palms of the rainforests are homes for the orang-utans. Massive logging of oil palms to boost the palm oil sector has led to the annihilation of these poor tree-dwellers!

According to the IUCN, the total number of orang-utans has declined to its half over the past ten years. Today, the Sumatran orang-utans have been labelled as critically endangered and the Bornean orang-utans as endangered.

A recent surge in awareness of the issue has prompted several palm oil companies to develop more sustainable technologies in the palm oil manufacturing process. It has also ensured better conservation of these natural habitats. However, efforts in realizing the same approach in the pet kernel meal sector are not successful. Hence, the problem remains a grave issue.

So, it is up to you to make sure that the smile on your pet’s face is not the cry of a poor orang-utan!

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Why is it said that logging is a real threat to rainforests?

The chair that you lazily lounge on or the papers that you scribble on were once tall trees in a forest somewhere! Rainforests are Mother Nature’s gift to mankind.

Trees form the basic structure of every rainforest. They are not just friends of the natural ecosystem, but also an irreplaceable element in the commercial sector. For example, hardwood trees like Mahogany fetch a huge profit in the furniture market. The wood pulp from the softwoods of the Canadian coniferous trees forms the raw material for making paper.

However, such large profits rule the market only for short terms. Forest resources are mostly non-renewable. A commercially valuable tree that probably takes decades to grow can be uprooted in just a few minutes! As the tree falls to the ground, it crushes several other smaller trees. A forest area can be wiped off in just a few days but will probably never recover at all!

Paving roads for mining minerals require the clearing of large forest areas. This creates hidden opportunities for illegal trade of timber and poaching of wild animals for bushmeat. Almost 90 per cent of the West African rainforests have disappeared. Apes and gorillas are killed and sold on roadsides and markets. Experts fear that at least 1/10th of the world’s total timber reaches the markets through illegal logging practices.

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What are the major threats to the rainforests?

Forests are the elixir of life. You may be thousands of kilometres away from one, but the air you breathe in or the comforts you enjoy in your room are more or less connected with or controlled by these jungles.

Rainforests are not just trees standing together. It is a spectacular ecosystem of birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, fish, invertebrates, bacteria, and even abiotic elements such as soil, air, and water.

Better living conditions and advancements in the health sector have resulted in a longer lifespan and increased birth rates. Man, and his constant demand for space, food, and other comforts, put an equal demand upon raw materials, a majority of which are found only within these rainforests. Hence, forest trees are felled for timber or destroyed for gaining access to mining.

Other major reasons behind deforestation are, increased population in rainforest areas, excessive demand for tropical hardwoods, cattle grazing, palm oil, and soya plantations, and construction of hydroelectric dams.

The destruction of the rainforests directly affects other ecosystems throughout the world. The latter part of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st have witnessed about half of the world’s total rainforest areas being wiped away because of deforestation.

However, media coverage on grave issues such as global warming and climatic changes has raised better awareness of sustainable practices to ensure forest conservation.

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What are the characteristic traits of the Chimbu and Tlingit tribes?

The Chimbu tribal folks live in dispersed settlements all across the central highland rainforests of Papua New Guinea. Their houses are oval or rectangular with low thatched roofs. The Chimbu practise subsistence agriculture through shifting cultivation.

Subsistence agriculture is the practice of cultivating just what is required to meet their needs. Crops include sweet potatoes, bananas, and beans. In shifting cultivation, a plot is extensively used for few years to cultivate crops. It is then ploughed and left barren without sowing for several years. These plots are never abandoned but handed down to other members of the family.

Pigs are revered as valuable assets for trade and as an exchange item during their highly ceremonial rituals. The Chimbus are famous for their strikingly huge headdresses made from bird feathers and their body decorations.

The Tlingit tribes inhabit the temperate rainforests that line the Pacific north-western coast of Northern America. Tlingit means ‘People of the Tides’. The land, caressed by sea inlets, rivers, and streams, is plentiful with diverse and edible aquatic life such as sea oysters, clams, crab, salmon, and herring. Seaweeds such as kelps are harvested and used in soups.

The inland Tlingit tribes hunt deer, elk, mountain goats, and rabbits for food and gather or harvest berries, nuts, and wild celery.

The Tlingit culture is multifaceted and gives much emphasis on family and relationships. Houses are made of planks and are fastened together without using nails or any other kind of adhesive.

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Which are the prominent indigenous groups found in the northwest of the Amazon rainforest?

For hundreds of years, the Amazonian rainforest has served as a giant refuge for thousands of indigenous people. Tribes among these people are formed based on differences in culture, language, and geographical makeup.

The northwestern side of the Amazon Rainforest, which passes through Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuela, shelters around 22 different ethnic groups. The 65,000 people belonging to these 22 different indigenous groups speak different languages. However, such differences are woven together by common threads such as festivities, inter-tribal marriages, rituals, and trade.

The Alto Xingu region in the Brazilian state of Mato Grosso shelters 14 ethnic groups that together forms a larger community. Ten out of these 14 indigenous tribes differ in the language used but share the same river, culture, marriage customs, rituals, and trade. The remaining four tribes also share basic commonalities and do not maintain close ties with other groups. There are various other similarly isolated tribal congregates that survive within the Amazon Rainforests.

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Why is the Yanomami tribe of Brazil special?

The Yanomami, also spelled Yanomamo, are a group of approximately 38000 indigenous people found living in the rainforests and mountains of Northern Brazil and Southern Venezuela. About 250 villages of varying sizes belong to this tribe.

The Yanomami territory in Brazil alone is twice the size of Switzerland. This area, combined with the Venezuelan territory, forms the largest territory for indigenous people in the world.

Yanomami people live in a communal system. An entire village lives together under a single oval-roofed communal house called shabono. Some shabonos can shelter as many as 400 village members! Shabonos are made from plant matter and have a central open area for holding rituals, feasts, and games. These degradable roofs are reconstructed every 4 to 6 years.

The Yanomami tribes are better known as horticulturalists, hunters, and fishers. The male members do the hunting and the women cultivate crops. Crops form about 80 per cent of the tribe’s diet and are produced by using the slash-and-burn method. Apart from these crops such as fruits and vegetables, protein-rich meat from hunted animals and fish too completes their diet chart.

Once the lands become exhausted of their fertility and are no more fit for cultivation, the Yanomamis migrate to more fertile grounds and start life all over again. This is called shifting cultivation.

Threats from gold miners and colonisers, coupled with extensive road development activities, have polluted their lands and driven these people out of their natural homes.

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Which are some of the tribes commonly found in Sarawak? What makes the Penan tribe distinct from other Sarawak tribes?

The Sarawak State of Malaysia, located on the Bornean Island, is home to some of the most diverse ethnic rainforest tribes of the world. They are collectively called Dayaks meaning people of the interiors and contribute to almost half of the entire population of the Sarawak State. A few major tribes are: the Kayan, Kenyah, Kejaman, Kelabit, Punan Bah, Tanjong, Sekapan and the Lahanan.

Evidence reveals that these island dwellers are descendants from the South-East Asian mainland.

The Penan tribe is the last surviving hunter-gatherer tribe and has received more international attention than other tribes. The group is best known for its practice of ‘molong’. Molong means ‘never taking more than necessary’. They are master hunters and are famed for their use of the blowpipe. The blowpipe is a lightweight weapon made from forest raw materials. It is filled with darts, pellets and other such light projectiles and then shot at the target by blowing through one end. The poisonous darts enable multiple shots at the same target or more than one kill in a single shot!

Sadly enough, this great tribe is now fighting a battle for survival. Malnutrition, health problems, and commercial dangers such as deforestation have forced a major section of the total population to choose a life of settling permanently. The remaining few still follow the traditional way of nomadic lifestyle.

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Why is it said that African forest tribes rely on hunting very much? How is bushmeat trade affecting these tribes?

The African tribal populations are skilled hunters and gatherers. Hunted animals form a major part of their diet and supply the much-needed protein. Hunting skills are perceived as a scale of one’s physical efficiency and hence is a matter of great prestige within the group, especially among the men.

Different tribes follow distinctly unique hunting patterns. The Efe people, for example, often hunt alone. They use bows and poison-tipped arrows for hunting down monkeys and small antelopes.

Other groups like the Mbuti make extensive use of nets to corner and capture animals.

The Bayaka are perhaps the best-known net hunters. They form a semi-circular wall using these nets, which sometimes extend even up to a kilometre in length. Bayaka women shout and make noises to stun and chase the animals into the nets. The animals thus cornered, are then killed by the men using spears.

The rainforest serves as a mother to these people, nourishing and nurturing them with her vital supplies. However, encroachment of outsiders has led to commercialization and increased demand for bushmeat even in the overseas market and urban centres. This demand has negatively altered the sustainability of such peaceful hunting practices. Many susceptible tribal men are often taken advantage of and made to work as hired trackers for elephant poachers or commercial hunters.

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Who are the most famous among the African tribal people?

For centuries, the tropical forests of Africa were considered treacherous and unfit for human inhabitation. However, the heart of the African rainforests in Zambia, Cameroon, Congo, and the Central African Republic has been a haven to some of the most celebrated tribal groups of hunters and gatherers. The most representative of these groups are the Mbuti, the Twa, the Baka, and the Aka, collectively called Pygmies, which means ‘dwarf’.

Pygmies are distinctly short, the tallest being the Mbuti tribe, with a height not more than 1.5 metres! Surprisingly, anthropologists opine that this shortness is a boon rather than a curse! The smaller body mass helps them to dissipate body heat better and with great agility within the rough forest terrains. These tribes also have better digestive systems than the sub-Saharan people.

The African tribes generally live in groups of 15-60 people, hunting and gathering wild fruits, vegetables, and ‘liquid gold’ - honey. These ‘children of the wild’ have long identified their souls with the forest and its mysterious hidden language. Their in-depth knowledge of plants and animals makes it easy to obtain wild food and natural medicines for various ailments.

Pygmies are nomadic. They migrate across lands in response to resource availability. This dispersal of the relatively small tribes across great distances has resulted in lower population density.

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Why is it said that the African forest people have a unique lifestyle?

The African continent with its 54 countries is home to about 3000 tribes, including the many tribes of Pygmies living in the rainforests. Together they form a major part of the total African population.

The influence of these indigenous human races on global civilization and its culture is tremendous. The African forest tribes live a unique nomadic life. They build temporary camps which have close access to nearby villages. The area chosen is cleared of its undergrowth and thickets, but the trees are kept intact. This surrounding tree canopy provides protection and shade from the scorching tropical sun.

Bushmeat, wild honey, and forest products are traded for metal goods, fabric, vegetables, and manioc (a staple food) from these neighbouring villages. Women function as gatherers, collecting forest produces with baskets on their backs. Bushmeat and honey are hunted by the men of the tribe. Honey is the most sought-after ‘liquid gold’, especially among the Mbuti. Men climb great heights in search of beehives. The bees are then chased away tactfully by smoking wood.

Huts resemble the igloos of the Arctic, but the domed roof and walls are not made of ice, but of intricately woven saplings and leaves!

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Why is the arapaima special among the rainforest fish?

Fish breathe in water and animals breathe on land, is an age-old saying. The Arapaima fish, however, has something entirely different to say!

The Arapaima is an air-breathing fish that plies the Rainforest Rivers of South America’s Amazon Basin and nearby lakes and swamps. Acknowledged as one of the largest of all freshwater fish, these giants are fondly called by the name ‘paiche’ or ‘pirarucu’ and you will soon know why.

Though it is believed to grow up to a whopping 15 feet in length, the most common sightings measure an average length of six feet and a weight of about 91 kilogrammes!

The Arapaima has a striking appearance that cannot be mistaken for anything else. The head is tapered and has a copperish-green tint. The mouth is upturned and the streamlined body is scaly and black with a white centre. Arapaimas have an outstandingly red dorsal fin that stretches from front to back giving it the local name ‘pirarucu’ meaning ‘red fish’. The Arapaimas have to ‘gulp’ in the air every ten minutes and so inhabit the shallow depths just below the water surface. These ‘gulps’ which sound more like a cough, can be heard kilometres away!

These voracious predators are mainly fish hunters. They also eat fruits, seeds, insects, lizards, birds, and even small primates dangling on low-lying branches!

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Why are orang-utans known as the ‘gardeners of the forest’?

Orang-utans are great apes indigenous to the tropical rainforests of the Sumatran and Bornean islands. Of the three species identified so far, the Bornean type flourishes across the width and breadth of the Bornean Island and the Sumatran and Tapanuli species in Northern Sumatra.

It is easy to recognize an orang-utan from other primates by its red fur coat. They resemble apes in their shape. The arms are disproportionately longer and more agile than the legs. Orang-utans can touch their ankles without bending even a bit! Can you do that?

These arboreal primates possess excellent cognitive abilities similar to gorillas and chimpanzees and are slightly smaller than the former.

Orang-utans are known as the ‘gardeners of the forest’. They play the role of stakeholders and are vital in seed dispersal and forest growth.

Arboreal in nature, they seldom come down unless absolutely necessary. They are often attacked and killed by leopards, tigers and crocodiles. However, the most significant threat arises from habitat loss due to road development, timber trade, and commercialized agricultural activities.

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How are clouded leopards related to the great cats?

The clouded leopard, named for its spotted coat, is one of the most ancient of cat species. They are closely related to great cats like the lion, and are slightly bigger than domestic cats. But despite all these similarities, the clouded leopard can hardly roar!

Clouded leopards plod the lowland rainforests that range across Nepal, Bangladesh, and eastern India and extend to Sumatra and Borneo. They have been sighted across dry woodlands and swampy terrains as well. The Bornean clouded leopards are more robust than the others. The reason behind this is the absence of tigers and other leopards in the region.

When it comes to climbing trees, clouded leopards are top-notch and often outdo other cat species. The large paws and sharp claws aid in better grip around the tree. These skilled climbers can also be seen hanging upside down from branches. Their bodies come with long tails and relatively short legs.

Despite their love for climbing trees, the clouded leopards prefer hunting on land. They feast on deer, monkeys, pigs, squirrels, birds, and even little squirrels.

Apart from these known facts, much remains to be learnt about them. They are seldom seen in the wild and are considered a vulnerable species.

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Where can we find tree kangaroos?

You have heard much about the Australian kangaroos that leap and bounce on land. But what about their arboreal cousins, the tree kangaroos?

The tree kangaroo shares the common physical traits of kangaroos and lemurs and inhabits the lowlands and mountainous rainforests of Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and Australia. A total of fourteen species of tree kangaroos have been identified so far.

Their life on trees has enabled them to adapt better. The species has developed strengthened forelimbs and shorter legs to boost better and faster climbing. They weigh up to 14.5 kg and grow to a length of around 90 cm. Tree kangaroos wear a chestnut-brown coat adorned by two golden stripes on the back. Hence, the animal also goes by the name, ‘the golden-mantled tree kangaroo’.

Shreds of evidence reveal that kangaroos, wallabies, and the tree kangaroos are closely related marsupials descending from the same ancestors called macropods. Scientists believe that macropods were essentially tree-dwelling animals that existed millions of years ago.

Illegal poaching and habitat destruction have led to a massive decline in the total population of this plant-eating marsupial.

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