My Science School

            The Punic Wars were three wars that were fought between Rome and Carthage. They lasted from 264 BC to 146 BC. In the days when Rome was still a Republic, a big fight broke out between Rome and Carthage. Carthage was an ancient city-state in North Africa, about 300 miles from Rome. Both cities had built empires of their own, and Carthage controlled three islands off the coast of Italy.

            The first Punic War was fought because, both Rome and Carthage wanted control of the island of Sicily. Carthage and Rome fought for 20 years. However, Rome eventually won.

            The Second Punic War started because Carthage attacked a Roman ally in Iberia, which we now know as Spain. Hannibal, the great military genius from Carthage, defeated Rome in several major battles. However, he was not able to capture the actual city. Rome won the war, and attacked the Carthaginian homeland. Once again, Carthage lost all of its Iberian holdings, and Rome was victorious. This marked the end of the Carthaginian supremacy, and the rise of Rome. The Third War was fought when Carthage was recovering economically and Rome felt threatened. Rome possessed far more power than Carthage. It crushed Carthage, and forced all the people to move away.

            The Punic wars are important because, by the end of this, Rome was the dominant power in the Mediterranean Sea.

 

               Around 3000 BC, a group of individuals migrated from the Arabian Peninsula into the land of Canaan, which was between Egypt and Syria. These people were known as the Phoenicians. By 1200 BC, the Phoenicians controlled a narrow strip of land that bordered along the Mediterranean Sea in Northern Canaan, where they built a number of cities and villages.

               The Phoenicians were masters of the sea. Rather than moving goods over the land in massive caravans, the Phoenicians built large sailing ships, and traveled to lands as distant as Great Britain and Spain.

               The Phoenicians became the greatest traders of their time, and the secret of their power lay in shipbuilding. They built three types of ships, that could be rowed as well as sailed, and along with trading; they started establishing colonies all over the Mediterranean. They built new cities, and the most important of these cities was Carthage. They also developed an alphabet- and taught it to their trading partners.

               Did you know that the name Phoenician means ‘purple country’? It refers the purple dye which was one of the most important items that the Phoenicians traded in. They also traded in terracotta and glassware, precious metals, wine, olive oil, textiles and cedar wood.

                The ancient kingdom of Israel was ruled over by a succession of kings. However, around 926 BC, after the reign of King Solomon, the tribes in the north were treated very harshly by the southern tribes. So, they revolted to form their own separate kingdom. Now there were two kingdoms- one in the north, and one in the south. The northern kingdom continued to be known as the Kingdom of Israel, while that in the south became the Kingdom of Judah.

                In 587 BC, the Babylonians conquered the southern kingdom. But, later, after the Persians conquered the Babylonians, the people of Judah were allowed to return home. When the Romans conquered the region shortly before the time of Jesus, they gave the name, ‘Philistia’ to the entire region. It is from this word, ‘Philistia’ that we get our modern English name ‘Palestine’. 

               Our knowledge about the early history of the Israelites is based on accounts from the Bible. According to the Bible, Israel owes its beginnings to a man by the name of Abraham. Abraham lived in Mesopotamia, in the city of Ur, around 1900 BC. Abraham and his followers believed in just one all powerful God, who they referred to as Yahweh. These people later became known as the Jews.

               Abraham and his followers eventually left Ur, to found a new civilization in the land of Canaan, which was a fertile, beautiful place. For the next two generations, the Israelites lived in Canaan in relative peace. Abraham’s grandson, named Jacob, was the father of 12 sons. Each of these sons grew to become leaders of their own tribe. These tribes became known as the 12 tribes of Israel.

               Because of severe food shortage, the Jews later were enslaved by the Egyptians. Four hundred years later, their prophet Moses led them out of Egypt, and to the Promised Land which we now know as Israel. The first king of Israel was King Saul, who was followed by King David. It was during David’s time, that Jerusalem became the capital of Israel. 

                    Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in 332, and after his death, Egypt was ruled by the Ptolemy kings. Ptolemy, founder of the dynasty, was a Macedonian general under Alexander the Great. After Alexander’s death, he declared himself King Ptolemy I. Egypt soon accepted the Ptolemies as the successors to the pharaohs of independent Egypt. In all, there were fifteen kings- all of whom were named Ptolemy- who reigned - over Egypt for more than three hundred years. It was Ptolemy I who began construction of the famous lighthouse at Alexandria, which was one of the wonders of the ancient world.

                    Ptolemy II promoted trade, added new territories to Egypt, and left a legacy of many administrative reforms. Under the Ptolemy kings, the city of Alexandria became the world centre for arts and science. There were many queens too, but the most famous of them was Cleopatra. The later Ptolemy kings, however, fought among them, and this gave the Romans an opportunity to exert control over them. The Ptolemy family ruled over Egypt until the Roman conquest in 30 BC. 

               Ramses II was one of the powerful and Influential pharaohs of Egypt. He ruled for an amazing 67 years, the second longest reign of the ancient Egyptian pharaohs. He is known as Ramses the Great for his contributions to Egypt, including his war campaigns to the Mediterranean, as well as his construction projects, such as cities, temples and tombs. In fact, perhaps the best-known achievements of Ramses the Great are his architectural marvels, most notable the Ramesseum and the temples of Abu Simbel.

               The reign of Ramses II was marked by numerous battles and he became known for his military strength.

               In addition, Ramses ll’s campaigns restored land to Egypt that had been previously lost to these empires. By forming peace treaties with these empires after warring with them, Ramses II helped to solidify Egypt’s borders on all sides, allowing for increased internal stability. Now don’t you agree that he was truly a great pharaoh?  

 

               The most glorious period in Ancient Egyptian history was the period of The New Kingdom that extended from 1550-1070 BC. During this time, some of the most famous pharaohs ruled over ancient Egypt. Military expansion, developments in art and architecture, as well as religious innovations marked the New Kingdom.

               The era of the New Kingdom began with the reign of Tuthmosis I who expanded the empire, made the army more powerful, and brought the gold and ivory trade of Africa under his control, making Egypt very rich. He started the trend of building huge monuments besides the pyramids, and was the first pharaoh to be buried in a special burial place reserved for royalty called the Valley of Kings.

               One of the most famous of the pharaohs was Hatshepsut. She was the first great woman in recorded history. She remained in power for twenty years, and during this time, the Egyptian economy flourished. She expanded trading relations and built magnificent temples as well as restoring many others. Another great ruler was Amenhotep III. 

               The Ancient Egyptians believed in life after death, and they believed that they had to preserve their bodies so they could use them in the afterlife. A method of artificial preservation, called mummification, was developed by the ancient Egyptians. Mummification was a complicated and lengthy process which lasted up to seventy days, and the preserved body is called a mummy.

               The process of mummification was done by priests. The body was first washed, and all the internal organs, except the heart, were removed. The body was then stuffed, and covered with a special substance that absorbed all the moisture in the body.

               After 40-50 days, the stuffing was removed, and replaced with linen or sawdust. It was then wrapped in strands of linen, covered with a sheet called the shroud, and placed in a stone coffin called the sarcophagus. The mummy was now ready to journey into the afterlife.

               The afterlife was a heavenly place, complete with a heavenly Nile River. To reach the afterlife, one had to board a magical boat, and only those who spent their life doing good things would get a seat. You would need all the things you used on Earth, and so, bodies were buried along with everything that a person might need for a comfortable life. This is why the pharaohs built elaborate tombs, and had food, clothes, jewellery, and even horses buried with them! 

               The Ancient Egyptians had many gods and goddesses- over 2000, in fact! Unlike other ancient cultures, whose gods looked somewhat like people, most ancient Egyptian gods had animal heads. Ra was the most important God. He was the lord of all the gods, and was usually shown in human form with a falcon head, crowned with the sun disc encircled by a sacred cobra. The king of gods was Amun, and when Amun was combined with the Sun God Ra, he was even more powerful. He was then called Amun-Ra.

               Bastet, the daughter of the Sun God Ra, was the Goddess of Protection and of household entertainment. Thoth was the God of Wisdom, Writing and Knowledge, while Sobek was God of the Nile. Horus was God of the Sky, Geb was the Earth God, and Tefnut was the Goddess of Rain. Osiris was the ancient Egyptian God of Growing Things.

               Sekmet was the Goddess of War and Battle while Anubis was God of Embalming and the Dead. The Egyptians believed that after you died you went to a new world, just like this one, and so they put into your grave everything you would need in the next world. 

               The civilization of Ancient Egypt lasted for over three thousand years. When did this civilization begin? Well, farmers first settled in Egypt along the River Nile around 5000 BC. Egypt is mainly made up of hot deserts, and receives little rain-fall. Without the River Nile, the whole area would be just a barren desert. All of Egypt depended on the Nile for water, food, and transportation. The Nile would flood each year, coating the land on either side of the river with, thick black mud. This mud was ideal for growing crops. In short, the Nile provided the ancient Egyptians with fertile land which helped them to grow their crops and raise their animals.

               Gradually, two separate kingdoms, ruled by different kings, developed along the Nile River. The kingdom in Upper Egypt- the area on both sides of the Nile- was known as the White Crown, and the kingdom in Lower Egypt was called the Red Crown. Around 3200 BC, the two were united by a pharaoh called King Narmer or Menes. It is after this unification that Ancient Egypt’s characteristic culture, art and religion were shaped, and taken to great heights, to create one of the longest lived advanced civilizations in the history of the world. 

               In 211 AD, a group of Persians called Sassanids took over control of the Parthian Empire. The Sassanids were the descendants of Sassan, who was their high priest. The founder of the Empire was Ardashir I, and it was his son Shapur I who led the Empire to the height of its glory. He defeated the Romans, and advanced far into Roman territory.

               The Sassanids placed great importance on Persian culture and Greek philosophy. Persian culture and religion flourished in their courts. The Sassanids bid to reestablish the borders of the Old Persian Empire as well as Egypt, brought them into frequent conflict with the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire. These long wars finally drained the resources of the Sassanids, and after 636, they suffered heavy defeats at the hands of the Arabs. 

               Achaemenid is name of the dynasty that ruled ancient Persia from about 700 BC, until its conquest by Alexander the Great. The first rulers of Achaemenid Persia were the subjects of the Assyrians. They may also have ruled a small part of the ancient kingdom of Elam.

               The most famous Achaemenid rulers were Cyrus the Great, his son Cambysus, Darius, and Xerxes I. Cyrus founded the first world empire - after defeating the Median dynasty and uniting the Medes with the other major Iranian tribe, the Persians. He gained fame both as a triumphant conqueror and a superb warrior, besides being the founder of the greatest empire the world has ever seen. Cambyses was the son and successor of Cyrus. He continued the policy of expansion started by his father Cyrus. After becoming king of Persia, he conquered Egypt, and was named pharaoh in 526.

               Darius was also known as Darius the Great. His reign lasted from 522 to 486. When he died, the Persian Empire had reached its peak. He was succeeded by his son Xerxes. Before Xerxes came to the throne, rebellions had been breaking out in Egypt and Babylon. He quelled both swiftly, and set up a strict rule. However, the power of the Achaemenid dynasty was now on the decline, and the end came with the invasion of Persia by Alexander the Great.

 

               The Elamites were an ancient people who inhabited a region of Southwest Persia known as Elam. They were mainly farmers and horse breeders, who set up city states around 3500 BC. Elamite history can be divided into three main phases- the Old, Middle, and Late periods. In all the periods, Elam was closely involved with Sumer, Babylonia, and Assyria. This association was sometimes through peaceful trade, but more often through war. In 639 BC, the Assyrians finally sealed Elam’s fate by conquering it, and when Assyria fell, Elam was merged with the kingdom of Medes.

               The Medes were an ancient people who were related to the Persians. Their kingdom, Media, lay in what is now Northwestern Iran, between the Caspian Sea and the Zagros Mountains. The major economic activity in this kingdom was centred around breeding horses, cows, sheep, and rarely, goats. They also excelled in metallurgy, especially iron work, and built the strongest and fastest chariots of the time.

               The Medes gained local power by successfully defending the native tribes of Western Iran against the continuous attacks by Assyrians and Babylonians. 

                Deep in the Jordanian desert, surrounded by towering mountain ranges, laid the ruins of an ancient city that fascinates archaeologists because of its unique appearance.

               This is the ancient city of Petra, which was literally carved from the sandstone cliffs of Southern Jordan. There, the people known as the Nabataeans built temples and tombs, houses and halls, altars and aqueducts. Petra is believed to have been established in or around the 6th century BC .The city’s beautiful structures were carved out of rock. In fact, the word Petra itself means ‘rock’.

               There were many different structures created from the red rocks of the mountain on which the city sits. Some of the most amazing of these structures are the many different tombs that rest within the city- all of them empty. No one knows what happened to their contents. There is also a beautiful three thousand seat theatre, and the treasury of the pharaoh.

               Petra quickly attracted many tradesmen to the region. It became extremely wealthy, because it monopolized trade in silk and spices.

              At its peak, the city of Petra was home to some 20,000 Nabataeans who, in the midst of the desert, built an ingenious system of waterways to provide their city with the precious liquid. Thus Petra was able to transform itself into an artificial oasis in the middle of the desert.

 

               Ancient Arabia consists of lands to the west and south of Mesopotamia. Saba, with its capital at Marib was the oldest and most important of the South Arabian kingdoms, which also included Qataban, Ma’in, Hadramawt and Himyar. These were kingdoms of traders, and it was trade in incense and myrrh which provided these kingdoms with prosperity. Do you know what incense and myrrh are?

               Incense is a gum resin, derived from a tree, which gives off a fragrant smoke when burned. In the ancient world, it was a vital substance, and one that was essential for religious ceremonies of the times. Myrrh played an essential role in embalming, and was also added to lime to impart a high gloss to walls. The kingdoms of Ancient Arabia were the principal producers and importers of both substances. 

 

               These kingdoms did not have such a glorious tradition of architecture, sculpture or craftsmanship as Egypt and Sumeria had, but they were masters of building with mud bricks. The buildings include great houses, four, five and even eight stories high, and one sultan’s palace with an estimated 1,000 rooms!

               Another important achievement in these kingdoms was  irrigation. There were great irrigation works that employed obstructions to divert waters horn the rivers. The systems channelled the water into otherwise arid areas by means of an elaborate system of main and subsidiary canals, spillways and sluices, constructed on mud banks raised above the level of fields.

               These Ancient Arabians may not have been masters of a golden empire, or creators of great temples, but they were prolific writers. In all the regions they inhabited, they left tens of thousands of alphabetic inscriptions. Some were merely names, while others were important historical documents that give us glimpses into life in these kingdoms.