What do we know about the history of the Inca Civilization?


               The Incas established a mighty empire that stretched along the Pacific coast of South America. The early rulers defeated the other tribes of Cuzco. The early kings were called Sinchi. It was only from the rule of the sixth ruler, Inca Roca that they called themselves Inca. The eighth Inca. Huiracoch conquered most of Urubamba Valley, in the fifteenth century. During an attack on the enemy Chanka his son Pachacutec Yupanqui seized power. Pachacutec was called ‘he who remakes the world’. He recorded the history of his people.



               His son Tupac Yupanqui was a patron of art and science. He led the empire to its golden age, and extended his rule as far as Chile and Ecuador. His son Huayana Capac conquered parts of Colombia.



 


How was the early African kingdom of Kush related to Egypt?


               The pharaohs of Egypt conquered Kush around 2000 BC. Kush, also known as Nubia, is present day Sudan. Kush freed itself from the clutches of the pharaohs during the period of the Hyskos from 1650 to 1540 BC. However, Kush again came under Egyptian rule from 1540 BC. An Egyptian viceroy governed Kush from Aniba. Nubians were skilled fighters and were highly valued as soldiers in the Egyptian army. The Kushites cashed in on the weakening of Egyptian authority, and set up their own kingdom in Napata. The Kushite rulers turned the tables on Egypt. From the reign of King Piye, in the eighth century, Egypt came under their rule. They were known as ‘Black Pharaohs’.



               During the reign of Tahrqa, they were driven out of Egypt by the Assyrians, and they withdrew into Napata. King Ergamenes I founded a new dynasty between 270 and 260 BC. Meroe was the capital of the new kingdom. The kingdom of Meroe experienced its golden age under King Natakamani. The Romans razed Napata to the ground in AD 279. However, the kings and queens of Napata bounced back from defeat, and beat back the Romans. A Nubian nomadic people called Blemmyes took over the rule of Meroe in 250 AD. Meroe was destroyed around AD 350. 


What makes the Ethiopian culture a significant one?


                    The wise King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba had a son called Menelik I, according to Ethiopian legend. King Menelik I was the first king of Ethiopia. Ethiopia is one of the world’s oldest states. Axum was the capital. Ethiopia’s power rose again under the Zagwe dynasty. Roha was made the new capital. The emperors bore the title of ‘Negus Negest’ meaning ‘king of kings’. Yekuno Amlak reestablished the rule of the Solomonic dynasty.



                    After 1493, the Portuguese were allowed into the country. The Portuguese helped the Emperor Claudius to stop the expanding kingdom of Adal. However, the Portuguese were thrown out of Ethiopia by Emperor Fasilidas in the seventeenth century. 


Why do we study the ancient civilizations of West Africa?


 



               Ghana was the first West African kingdom. It was formed around 750 BC. Mali, then known as Audaghost and Mauritania known as Kumbi Saleh were both part of the Ghana kingdom. Later, the Berber dynasty from the coast of Senegal conquered Audaghost and Kumbi Saleh in the eleventh century. Ghana fell.



               The Mandinka tribes of Mali made themselves independent. They set up their own kingdom with Niani as its capital. Sundiata Keita, the founder of the kingdom took the title of ‘Mansa’ or king of kings. The Kingdom of Songhai replaced Mali around 1375 AD. The conqueror Sunni Ali occupied Djenne and Timbuktu. In 1591, the kingdom was conquered by the Sultan of Morocco. The Hausa and Banza states rose in the area of present day Nigeria, Niger and Chad. 


Which was the centre of cultural development in Southern Africa?


               Have you heard of Zimbabwe? Zimbabwe means ‘great stone house’. The centre of the early culture in Southern Africa is located in the present day countries of Zimbabwe and Mozambique. From the second century, this area became home to farmers called Shona.



              The fifteenth century saw the birth of a new empire in Zimbabwe. The empire was called Munhumutapa after its first ruler’s name. Shortly after 1480, the Munhumutapa Empire fell apart. Changa, a governor of the Munhumutapa Empire founded the empire of Changamire. It remained a political power until 1834.



 


Who were the Aborigines?


               The Aborigines are the original inhabitants of Australia. They lived as hunters and gatherers in clans of 20 to 30 individuals. The men used boomerangs which came back to hand when thrown, and long spears. The women used clubs for hunting small animals. They also gathered berries, tubers, roots, as well as insects.



               Aborigines wore little clothing, and built simple huts. Their clans are based on ‘skin group’. All the father’s brothers are called fathers, and all the mother’s sisters are also called mothers. Their children are regarded as brothers and sisters. All of them belonged to one skin group. Every tribe had four to eight skin groups. Marriage within a skin group was not permitted. 


What are the highlights of the Oceania culture?


            Oceania is a world of islands. Over 7500 island and island groups make up Oceania. Oceania is subdivided into three groups - Polynesia which includes New Zealand, Hawaii, and Samoa, Melanesia which includes New Guinea and Micronesia, which includes Nauru. The islands of Oceania share many common features when it comes to language, religion, and the structure of society. Originally, Oceania was a society of farmers called manahune. However they were lorded over by the aristocrats or ariki.



            Expert boat builders enjoyed a special status in Oceania. Canoes of different kinds were made. The canoes were often decorated with richly carved wooden structures. Navigating between sharp rocks without a compass or a map called for great skill.



            Knowledge of sailing was passed down generations by word of mouth. They also built ocean going war vessels. These ships could carry up to 200 people. 


What is the importance of Easter Island?


               An astonishing sight met the eyes of the Europeans who first explored Easter  Island - hundreds of gigantic stone figures with oversized heads. They remain a mystery. They may represent respected ancestors, or important nobles. These figures are called moai. Originally, more than 1000 moai stood on Easter Island. Only 638 remain today. Easter Island is a Southeast Pacific island. The Rapa Nui culture made the moai. However, by the time the Europeans first set foot on Easter Island, the Rapa Nui culture had died out mysteriously.



               The tribes of Rapa Nui had a language in pictures called Rongorongo.



               Carved on the steep slope of the volcano Rano Kau is the birdman. The bird man has characters of both man and the frigate bird. The birdman cult became important only in the later years of the island history. Make-Make was the creator god of the birdman cult. The younger men of the birdman cult took part in a competition every year. They plunged from the cliffs, and swam to the rocky island of Motu Nui to fetch the egg of a sooty tern. The one who returned first with an unbroken egg became birdman for a year. 


What is the indigenous religion of Japan?


               The sun goddess Amaterasu is the most important of Japan’s deities. The Japanese believe that, Amaterasu sent her grandson Nnigi no Mikoto down to the Earth. His great grandson is believed to be the Emperor Jimmu Tenno, the first emperor of Japan. The emperors of Japan are known as tenno. They are direct descendants of Jimmu. Japanese emperors are god-emperors. To this day, the Japanese emperor performs many ritual duties and rites.



               Shinto or the way of the Gods is the Japanese natural religion. The most important Shinto shrine is the shrine to the sun goddess at Ise. Kojiki and Nihongi are the 7th century books that throw light on Japanese gods. 


What are the specialities of the Asuka and Nara periods?


 



 



               The period between 552 and 710 AD is known as the Asuka period. In the sixth century, Empress Suiko appointed her son in law Prince Shotoku, as the regent to the empire. He was an energetic man who made Buddhism the state religion. He also wrote the ‘seventeen articles’, the first political constitution of Japan.



               In 710 AD, Empress Gemmei made Nara the imperial capital. In the Nara period, peasants were forced to supply labour. Ambitious Buddhists monks interfered in politics. This period extended to 794 AD. 


Which are the ancient civilizations of Burma and Thailand?


 



               The Pyu was the early advanced civilization of Burma. The Pyu were organized into 18 city states. The Burmese founded the Kingdom of Pagan in the Irrawaddy Valley. Their King Anawratha conquered the Mon Kingdom in 1058 AD. In the 13th century, Pagan was sacked by the troops of Kublai Khan. This gave the chance for the Mons to regain their independence. The Mon had migrated to Eastern Burma and Thailand from India and Burma.



               The state of Dvaravati in Thailand, between the 6th and the 11th centuries, was the leading Mon kingdom. Another Mon kingdom rose in 573 AD. From the 10th century onwards, the Mon kingdoms were pushed back, or defeated by Pagan and the Khmer. The Mon of Northern Thailand lived in a kingdom centred around Lamphun. They were defeated by the Thai king, Mangrai in 1283. 


What do we know about the history of ancient Vietnam?


            According to legend, the Vietnamese people descended from the dragon king Lac long Quan and the immortal fairy, Au Co. They had a hundred children. The eldest became the first of the Hung kings. The people of the time were known as Lac Viet. In the 3rd century BC, a group of people migrated to Vietnam from South China. They were known as the Au Viet. They mixed with the Lac Viet. The kingdom of Au Lac was established in 210 BC. China took control of Vietnam from the 2nd century AD. Vietnam became free from China only in 960 AD. King Ly Cong Uan founded the kingdom of Dai Viet in 1009 under the Ly dynasty. His successor, Ly Phat Ma issued the law code known as Minh-Dao or the clear way.



            The Ly dynasty was followed by the Tran dynasty which ruled between 1225 and1400. Together with the Cham, they fought off the invasion of Kublai Khan from China. However, the north of Vietnam came under Chinese rule from 1407. Champa was the kingdom of the Chams. The Chams were Central and South Vietnamese rice farmers. Champa made itself independent in the 4th century. King Indravarman II made Indrapura the new capital, in the 9th century. Champa was occupied by the Khmers in the 10th century and the Dai Viet in the 11th century. In 1167, Champa gained independence with Chinese help. 


What is Angkor famous for?


               In 802 AD, the Angkor period started. The Angkor kingdom of the Khmer was one of the most important kingdoms in the whole of Asia. Angkor lies in Cambodia. Suryavarman II an Angkor king made the land world famous by building the temple Angkor Wat. This is a temple for Vishnu and is a UNESCO world heritage site.



               This rectangular temple is one and half kilometres long, and is surrounded by a wide moat. Five towers in the shape of lotus buds surround the main temple. These towers represent Meru, the world-mountain. Scenes from the Ramayana and the life of Krishna are carved on the walls of the temple. The sandstone buildings are almost completely covered with ornamentation. Around two million people visit Angkor Wat every year. 


What do we know about the Indian cultural groups of North America?


               Do you know that the original people of North America are called Indians? Now, don’t get confused. The Indians of North America have no connection with the people of India. The Clovis culture is the oldest Indian culture of North America. This culture got its name from the spear points found near Clovis. Clovis lies in present day New Mexico. The culture existed from 11600 - 10700 BC. The Folsom culture followed. It was born in 10700 BC, and died out in 8500 BC.



               Several regional cultures then came into being. The Hopewell culture is the most notable of these. It flourished in the Ohio and Mississippi valleys between 300 BC and 500 AD. The Indians of North America were divided into several hundred tribes and cultural groups. They worshipped nature. After hunting, they asked the forgiveness from nature.



 


How do we explain the cultural development in Ancient Central America?


               Around 1000 BC, the Olmecs were joined in Northern Mexico by the warlike Huastec people. However, they were defeated by the Aztecs, and later by the Spanish. They left behind only a few circular temples and palaces. The Zapotecs established themselves about 1000 BC. They made the Olmec city of Monte Alban, the capital.



               After 1000AD, they were driven off by the Mixtecs to the Mitla area. Tilantongo in Southern Mexico was their capital. They displaced the Zapotecs, and erected pyramids and magnificent tombs. They were conquered by the Spanish in the 16th century. Between 720 AD and 1150 AD, the Toltecs ruled Central Mexico. Their priest-king Quetzlcoatl led his people to Mixtec and Mayan regions, but he was driven away. Later, the Aztecs worshipped him as chief god and founder hero.