When did mountaineering become a sport?


          Man has lived in the mountains since prehistoric times. He often used to journey across difficult mountain regions. However, mountaineering became a sport about a hundred years ago. It does not involve any competition among people. Mostly many individuals, making up a party, climb together as a team. They depend upon one another for their protection and safety. It is a challenging sport.



          Mountaineers attempt to scale peaks in a convenient group. As they move up the dangerous peaks, they are generally tied together with a rope at a distance of about six metres. They do climb all at once. The leader climbs first and guides the rest. Mountaineers use special equipments for climbing. They wear special climbing boots, the soles of which are made of moulded rubber. It helps them gain a firm foothold on the dry rocks as well as snow. They wear protection suits against cold and wind at higher altitudes. They wear snow goggles for protection against the blinding glare. Each team carries a 40 metre long rope. They also carry things like oxygen cylinders, a compass, ice-axes, karabiners and pitons for different uses.



          The earliest recorded rock climbing was made in the British Isles by Sir Robert Moray who climbed the Stac Na Biorrach, St. Kilda (71.9 m 236 ft.) in 1698.



          Only about the year 1949 mountaineering became popular as a sport and climbers approached it scientifically. On 29 May, 1953, Tenzing Norgay of India and Edmond Hillary of New Zealand succeeded in scaling Mount Everest for the first time. And within the next five years all the top ten peaks in the world were conquered. 


When was swimming included as a sport?

          Swimming is the skill of staying afloat (on top of water) and moving through water. Swimming is a healthy exercise, and learning it may help you in times of emergency and crisis.



          In ancient times swimming was taught to warriors in Rome, Assyria and Greece. Gradually it became competitive and was included in the 1896 Olympics as a sport. To start with only males could participate in it. From the year 1912, women too were allowed to contest. Today swimming is a very popular sport throughout the world. Many swimming competitions take place on the national and international levels.



          There are several styles of swimming. The most efficient way of travelling through water is by a stroke called the ‘crawl’. With this stroke, the body cuts through the shallowest amount of water. The crawl is the fastest of all swimming styles and is used by record-setting champions. The crawl was developed in Australia early in the 20th century from a stroke used by the people of the South Seas.



          Other major styles of swimming include the backstroke and the breaststroke. Breaststroke was used in Europe as back as in the 16th century. With these strokes, the body of the swimmers enters more deeply into the water and therefore they are slower.



          There are separate races for different strokes and over different distances. The fastest swimmer is declared the winner. Now long distances like the length of a channel or a lake are set for the competitors of swimming competitions. 





 

When did rowing begin?


         The Sphinx Stela of Amenhotep II (1450 -1425 B.C) records that he stroked a boat for some three miles.



          According to the available records, sometime in 2000 B.C. the Mesopotamians used to hold a kind of boat race on the river Euphrates. A few centuries later, the Egyptians started having rowing competitions on the river Nile. Today, boat racing is a popular sport in the world.



          Rowing is divided into two basic types of competition. Regatta events are knocking out competitions, ending with a race between two or more finalists. Head, the other type of the river races, which are not used in international championships, are processional; the boats set off at intervals and the result is decided by their times over the course. Regattas are held over a stretch of river, lake, coast or artificial course while Head races are held over a stretch of river of variable length.



          The first boat race of modern times was held in England in 1716. This was organized by an actor called Thomas Doggette. He arranged for a single-sculling race (light racing boat having a single rower) among the Thames ferrymen. This became a popular and regular annual feature. It is called Doggette’s Coat and Badge.



          The first boat race at the University level took place between Oxford and Cambridge at Henley on Thames in 1829. This was an eight-oar race, i.e. eight participants rowing one boat. By the late 19th century, rowing as a sport was known in most of the countries. Since the World War II, however, boat racing became a professional and prestigious sport.



          In such competitions the number of oarmen in a boat varies. There are eight, four or even two oarmen in one boat. In the eight oar competitions there is also a coxswain (man in charge of a rowing boat and its crew) to steer the boat. In other contests, the boat is steered by connecting the rudder (broad flat piece of wood) to a pivoted pad under one of the oarmen’s feet.



          The European and Americans are very good at rowing but now the Chinese too give stiff competition. 


What is marathon?

          The highlight of long distance racing in the Olympics or in any other great athletic meet is the marathon. It gets its name from a legendary run made by a Greek soldier, Pheidippides, in 490 B.C. He raced from the plains of Marathon to Athens to convey the news of a great victory for Athens over an army of invading Persians. The distance he covered was 40 km (25 miles).





          In remembrance of the legendary run, in 1896, at the first modern Olympics in Athens, it was decided to stage a long road race. Most of the 16 runners in the first Marathon were Greek, but they were untrained and inexperienced and most of them soon collapsed with exhaustion. The winner, a Greek called Spiros Louis, was finally joined by the Greek royal family who jogged alongside him on the last lap to the finishing line. His victory was a great sensation. The first Boston marathon, the world’s longest-lasting major marathon, was held on 19 April, 1897 for a distance of 39 km (24 miles 132 yds). And the first national marathon championship was that of Norway in 1897.



          Since 1924, the marathon has been fixed at 42.195 kilometres (26 miles 385 yds.) This distance was also used for the race at the 1908 Olympic Games, run from Windsor to the White City Stadium – a distance regularly run in about two and a half hours nowadays. However, as marathon courses differ in distance, so the International Amateur Athletic Federation does not list a world record for this event. The marathon race is a fascinating event because neither age nor training seems to play a vital role in winning this race. 


Where did the game of basketball originate?


          Originally the game of Pok-ta-Pok was played in the 10th century BC, by the Olmecs in Mexico and closely resembled the basketball in its concept. ‘Ollamalitzli’ was a variation of this game played by the Aztecs in Mexico as late as the 16th century. If the solid rubber ball was put through a fixed stone ring the player was entitled to the clothing of all the viewers.



          Modern basketball which may have been based on the German game Korbball was played for the first time in mid-December 1891. This game was invented by the Canadian born Dr James A. Naismith. He was the physical education instructor at the Training School of the International YMCA College at Springfield in Massachusetts, USA. He was asked to invent a new game to enthuse the students as they were bored with their daily physical education classes.



          Naismith used ideas from games such as the Red Indian lacrosse, hockey, football, soccer and blended them with his own ideas and invented basketball. This new game unlike lacrosse did not require a stick. It did not even involve kicking the ball, as in soccer. It involved throwing the ball into the basket hence it was named basketball. 





          Soon the new game aroused the interest of the bored students at the YMCA. News of the game spread rapidly to other parts of America. During the next ten years it was introduced in Canada, France, Britain, China, India and Japan.



          The first goals were two peach-baskets. The iron hoop and net were introduced two years later. Initially people had to climb a ladder to get the ball from the net. But later a hole was made at the bottom of the net so that the ball could drop through.



          The game gained popularity after the Second World War. It is played by two teams, each having five players. Its field is rectangular, measuring 92 ft (28 m) in length and 50 ft (15 m) in breadth. Close to the centre of both the smaller sides, two baskets are suspended from two poles at a height of 10 ft (3 m). To score a goal a team has to send the ball through the basket.



          The first basketball match, played under modified rules, was on 20th January, 1892. Americans are considered the best players of basketball. The International Amateur Basketball Federation was founded in 1932; it has now dropped the word ‘Amateur’ from the title. It was first included in the Olympic Games in 1936. 


Which is the oldest game in the world?


          The game of polo is considered the oldest game in the world. It was played in Persia (modern Iran) during the 1st century A.D. Some scholars even claim that it was invented by the Persians around 2000 B.C. However, Iran is generally regarded as its originator. From Iran it was carried to Arabia and from there to Tibet. In Tibet, it was called ‘Pulu’. In fact, the word ‘polo’ has been derived from ‘pulu’ which means ‘ball’.



          In India polo was introduced by the Mohammedan conquerors in the 13th century. From here it was taken to England in 1860. Nowadays, it is played not only in India but also in Argentina, England, USA, and some other countries of the world. The earliest polo club of modern times was the ‘Cachar Club’ in Assam.



          Polo is played with a stick and a ball on horseback. The polo stick is called a ‘mallet’. It is an outdoor game. Its grass-field is 274.32 metres long and 146.3 metres wide. There are lightweight goal posts, 7.3 metres apart at each end. A goal is scored by hitting the ball through these goal posts. Two teams, each having four players play, the game. To be good at this game one has to be an expert horse-rider.



          Polo is played in six, seven or eight rounds. These are called ‘chukkers’. The duration of one chukker is 7.5 minutes. After every chukker there is a break.



          Polo is an expensive game and only the rich can afford it. Perhaps that’s why it is called the game of the princes.



          The first game of elephant polo was played at Jaipur in 1976 which was watched by about 40,000 spectators. In 1978, a camel polo was played at the same venue. Now, people have started playing even cycle polo. The world’s biggest trophy for polo is the Bangalore Limited Handicap Polo Tournament Trophy. It is a cup six feet in height.


Who is called the Black Pearl?

Football is one of the most popular games in the world; the best football player may logically be regarded as the most celebrated one. Pele has been one of the best football players of the world. According to a French newspaper, Pele, in an informal poll, was voted to be the best player of the century.

Pele was born in a poor family on October 23, 1940 in Brazil. His full name is Edson Arantes Do Nascimento. But people affectionately call him Pele. He is a Negro and thus has earned the name of Black Pearl of football. He is also called ‘King’ of football. Because of his poverty he had to drop out from school in the fourth class. He used to play soccer barefooted with a football made from cotton cloth. Once even he stole peanuts from a goods train to buy a leather football. Later he took up a job with a cobbler on a meagre salary.



At an early age of 11, he came in contact with the famous football instructor Waldimar Do Brito. Under his coaching Pele became an ace football player. When he was only 18, he became a member of the Brazilian Football Team and participated in the world football competition. Because of his skillful play Brazil became world champion in football. Subsequently he took part in the world football competition of 1962, 1966 & 1970.



Wearing the number 10 shirt, that was to become his trade mark, Pele scored 1216 goals in 1254 matches between 7th September 1956 to 2nd October 1974 – a world record for a single soccer player.



Pele has become a legend in his lifetime. Even today he receives more than 300 letters every week, most of which carry just the two-word address, “Pele, Brazil”. Now he has retired from football and established a football academy to train the budding footballers of his country.



Football has enabled Pele to earn a big fortune, but for him the most precious possession is a letter written to him by a blind boy from Columbia. The letter reads: “I have not been able to see any of the thousand goals scored by you. But after I heard that you had scored 999 goals, I constantly prayed to God to enable you to score the 1000th goal”. Pele says that he wept like a child after reading this letter.



 


What is Figure Skating?

          Skating probably originated in Scandinavia about 2,000 years ago when skaters used blades made of bone which were shaped and polished untill them provided a flat gliding surface. Then they were bound to the feet with thongs. The word “skate” originated from a Dutch word Schaats that dates back to the 16th century. Gradually skating branched itself into different forms and now it is played either on ice or on a level floor, by means of ice-skates or roller-skates attached to the skater’s boots. Ice-skates have a steel blade and roller-skates have four wheels each.

          Today competitive skating has many different forms that include figure, dance and speed skating – each of which is popular in many countries. Figure skating is one of the three main ice-skating sports, the other two being speed skating and ice dancing. It is so called because it involves skating patterns called figures on ice.



          Figure skating can be aptly described as ballet on skates that demand great body control and a feel for music whereas speed skating demands strength, stamina and fitness. Figure skating competitions have two main parts: compulsory figures or movements and movements of one’s own choice. Compulsory movements involve the skating of exact movements according to a special schedule and may be skated on both skates and only one whereas free skaters can leap, skin or make any other un-prescribed movements. The compulsory movements are skated first followed by the original program or dance and then the free skating or dancing.



          There are three types of figure skating: Single skating, Pair skating and Ice dancing. In Pair skating and Ice dancing there is a dance couple consisting of a man and a woman. In Ice skating the original program is treated as a separate part of an event but in pair skating it includes the compulsory moves. In the competition, the judges mark each competitor individually and the winner in each part is the skater or pair or dance couple placed first by the majority of the judges. Marks are awarded for technical merit (composition) and artistic impression (presentation). Specific time limits are prescribed for each section in each category. Music is played during the competition and the competitors are free to choose their own music. 


When did people start playing cards?

               Today people play many games of cards all over the world. Bridge is an international game of cards. In addition to this, people in every country play various other games of cards. Card playing is an indoor game. Do you know how this game was started?

               Some historians believe that the game of cards began in Egypt, but some others are of the view that it was started either in India or China. According to the written records, card playing was prevalent in Europe in the thirteenth century. It was called ‘tarots’ or picture cards. They were used for fortune telling or simple game. At that time a pack consisted of 22 cards with different kinds of pictures imprinted on them. Subsequently the number of cards in a pack was raised to 78 by adding 56 cards like aces, kings, queens, etc. Later the French reduced its number to 52. These 52 cards were separated into four divisions with four sets of 13 cards each. These were given the names of spade, heart, diamond and club. The English also adopted the same 52 cards system. Gradually the game of cards spread to the whole world.



               In the beginning, the cards used to have hand-painted pictures and as such they were very costly. Naturally common people were unable to purchase these costly cards. The invention of printing led to the production of countless varieties of cheap and beautiful cards which even the common people could buy. Initially the cards used to be circular or square in size, but now they are rectangular with a standard length of 8.5 cms and breadth of 6 or 5.5 cms.



               The game of cards is a very good source of entertainment. However, some people play cards for gambling which is undesirable. The gamblers not only waste time but money also.



 


Where did the game of chess originate?

          Chess is regarded as a game of the kings. Probably this is the oldest game. Some people are of the opinion that this game was started some 5,000 years ago. The word ‘chess’ finds its origin in the Persian word ‘Shah’ which means ‘King’. This gives the impression that chess was started in Persia, but this is not true.

          In fact, the game of chess was started in India. This was called Chaturanga – the names for traditional four army divisions. It is said that in ancient India, kings and emperors used to play chess to satisfy their lust for fighting in a harmless manner. During Moghul period this game became a fashion of Royal families. This game remained confined to India for about 2000 years. But later on, it spread to Persia, Arabia and finally to the countries of Europe. Gradually it became popular in all the countries of the world. Today the chess pieces include kings, queens, rooks, knights, bishops and pawns. The two most important and powerful pieces on each side are the king and queen. The king is the only piece that can not be captured but only check-mated.



          The game of chess reached England in the year 1255. The first international competition of chess was held in London in 1851. In 1924, the International Federation of Chess Players was founded in France. Dr Emanuel Lasker of Germany was the world chess champion for 27 years, from 1894 to 1921. Amongst the women chess players, Vera Menchik of Great Britain retained the world championship from 1927 till her death in 1944. The youngest chess champion of the world is Gary Kimovich Kasparov of Russia, who won the title on 9 November, 1985 at the age of 22 years and 210 days.



           Chess is now very popular in India. India has produced its own chess Grand Masters and International Masters. Among the world class chess players of India Viswhanathan Anand and Dibyendu Barua are prominent today.



           Nowadays the world competition of chess is held every three years. Also the artificial intelligence of computers have started challenging the human brain in the game of chess. The recent win of Kasparov over the IBM computer still proves the supremacy of man over machine. 


What is Kabuki?

          Kabuki is a lyric music of Japan. Like most of the other narrative forms, it began with a close relation to the Kabuki popular theatre of the Edo period. The Eastern part of the present capital city of Tokyo was originally called Edo. The Edo period refers to the dynasty founded by Tokugu wa Ilyasu – a local warrior during 16th century. The word “Kabuki” means the art of singing and dancing.

            Its musical events can be divided into on-stage activities and off-stage performance. In plays, derived from puppet dramas, the musicians called Chobo are placed on their traditional big size platform behind a curtained area of the stage close to the exit point. Although nearly all of the music can be heard in concert form today, still Kabuki productions are different form of narrative as well as lyrical styles. The most common dance scene today, however, is the one, in which the on-stage group consists of musicians who also take part in performance. The performers are placed on the stage according to the needs of the play.



          In this process there are as many different types of music as they are used in Chinese or Western opera. The most interesting side of this is the combination of a variety of modern musical instruments with that of the musical instruments belonging to the Edo period, like bamboo flutes or drums.



          Kabuki actor’s use elaborates costumes and their faces are heavily painted. Heroes usually are in white and villains in red costumes. Actors, all men, often fight pretended duels and mime actions such as drinking of milk or tea from invisible pots.



          Kabuki is still very popular in Japan.



 


Who created Mickey Mouse?

          Mickey Mouse, one of the most popular characters in the history of cartoons, is a very familiar name with all of us. This interesting character has entertained the people all over the world since a long time through its appearances in films, television and amusement parks. In the process, its creator became as famous as the creation. Do you know who was the creator of this well-known cartoon? 



                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  Mickey Mouse was the brain child of the famous American motion picture producer Walter Elivas Disney. He was very fond of making cartoon films and also became a successful animator. Mickey Mouse was introduced by him in 1928 in his silent cartoon film Plane Crazy. The first talkie (sound film) presenting Mickey Mouse was Steambout Willie made in 1929 by Disney. Thereafter it remained one of the most important characters in Walt Disney’s stock company of animated figures. The character was always drawn by Ub lwerks, one of Disney’s indispensable co-workers. The voice of Mickey in the films was the voice of Disney himself. Disney won a special Academy award in 1931-32 for creating Mickey Mouse. 



 



          Disney was born in Chicago on December 5, 1901. He started producing advertising films in Kansas City in 1919 and then turned to animation but only with limited success. Later he moved to Hollywood where he and his brother Roy become partners. When the first sound track movie featuring Mickey Mouse (Steambout Willie) was made in 1928, the character as well as its creator became instantly famous all over the world. Walt Disney also produced animated feature films like Snow white and the Seven dwarfs (1937), Fantasia (1940), Pinocchio (1938) etc. When the cost of making animated films became prohibitive, he ventured into true life adventure films such as Seal Island (1948), Beaver Valley (1950) etc. Later he made live action family films that include Davy Crocklet (1955), Mary Poppins (1965) etc.



          Disney introduced a new method of synchronizing sound with animation and also was the first to make a television series in colour in 1961. But he is best remembered for the two amusement parks he created - Disneyland in California and Disney World in Florida.



          This great showman died in Los Angeles on December 16, 1966. 


Who was Mozart?

               Music has been a main component of our culture since times immemorial. Generation after generation, people have enjoyed and experienced different forms and varieties of music. As a consequence every period of history has produced its own breed of musicians but only a few could make a lasting impact in the minds and hearts of people. Mozart was one such product of the 18th century music and went on to become one of the most brilliant composers in the history of music. His great genius was his ability to compose every form of music that included operas, choral, orchestral, and chamber music.

               Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was born in Salzburg, Austria in 1756. His father was a musician at the court of the Archbishop and his sister was also a talented musician. Even as a very young child Mozart could play violin and harpschord so well that his father took him on a tour to Europe to play before the Royalty. The trio consisting of Mozart, his father and sister, were acclaimed wherever they performed. The young Mozart began to compose at the age of five. Later he studied music in Italy.



               During his brief life, Mozart could be able to change the trend of music of the earlier era by providing a tone of emotion to it as the symphonies, sonatas and other instrumental works. In the pre-Mozart era, music almost lacked any kind of emotional expression. He is generally considered as a classical composer because his symphonies, concerts and sonatas follow the rules of the musical forms of the classical period. What is not at all classical about some of Mozart’s music is his very personal note. Some of his finest compositions sound as if he was pouring his heart out of his music.



               Mozart composed some of the finest operas which include The Marriage of Figaro, Don Giovanni and The Magic Flute. He was one of the 18th century musicians who is bracketed with Beethoven and Haydn for evolving and perfecting the orchestral music. His operas reflected every change of mood and twist of plot. The characters were presented as real people rather than theatrical puppets.



               Though Mozart captured great attention as a child artist yet the popularity waned with his growing age. As a result he had to earn his living as a humble musician. He spent a greater part of his life in poverty and his health suffered consequently. He died in 1791 at the young age of thirty-five. Unfortunately he died so poor that only the grave digger attended his funeral. 


How do parrot and myna speak like us?

          For centuries, man has loved the birds like parrot and myna. Both these birds can be taught to imitate the human voice. There are many species of parrots and mynas which, if properly taught, can clearly speak many words and smaller sentences like human beings. Do you know how they can do it?



          The parrot has a long and thick tongue. And so some people believe that because of this fact it can speak like human beings. But this is not the fact. We know that hawk and eagle also have long and thick tongues but they cannot imitate human voice. On the contrary, myna, without having such tongue is able to speak like us.



          In fact, parrot and myna are more intelligent than other birds and thus can imitate the human voice. Their speech and hearing mechanism are slow. As a result, the sounds coming out of their mouth resemble that of human beings. It is interesting to note that parrot and myna themselves do not understand what they speak. They are able to imitate human voice by noticing our lip movements. A female parrot named ‘Prudle’, now in the care of Iris Frost of East Sussex, won the ‘Best talking parrot-like bird’ title of the National Cage and Advisory bird show in London for 12 consecutive years (1965-76). This bird from Uganda was captured in 1958 from a nest. It knows a vocabulary of nearly 800 words.



          There are about 320 species of the parrots. Most of them are green. Their beaks are sharply pointed. Their length varies from 15 cms to 90 cms. Macaw, a long tailed parrot found in South America, is 90 cms long. They can live upto the age of 50 years if proper care is taken of. The females of all species of parrots lay white eggs. Parrot is a carrier of the virus causing disease called psittacosis.





 


 



 


What is Sumo wrestling?

          The people of Japan always keep a keen interest in their old customs and traditions. The case of Japanese sport lovers is no exception. Traditional games of the past awaken their curiosity and enthusiasm. Every traditional sport in Japan has been ritualized. Participants mostly follow a strict code which results in quality and artistic performance of the games.

          Sumo is one such traditional style of wrestling which is still popular in Japan. It is believed that the sport originated in Japan in the 1st century B.C. This game finds a mention in many Japanese literatures. Originally the objective of the game was to kill the opponent or force him to surrender. But the killing part of the game was eliminated from the rules in the 8th century A.D.



          The game, in fact, has been professionally practiced in Japan since the 16th century A.D. Modern sumo wrestlers are stoutly built with well-developed muscles. They are trained by a master wrestler in a traditional training school.



          A sumo match takes place in a small circular sand-covered area which is slightly over 15 feet in diameter. The heavily built wrestlers, wearing only elaborate belts and loin clothes grapple each other, making sudden forward movements of their body.



          One wrestler tries to force his opponent either to step out of the ring or touch the ground with some part of his body other than the soles of his feet.



          The contest seldom lasts for more than two minutes. The contestants devote about six minutes to some proceedings before the game that include the rituals of squatting up, scattering purified salt etc. The wrestlers approach each other several times only to be waved back by a gesture of the referee who is generally bearded and clad in a tinted robe, wearing an ancient court hat. The wrestlers fight barefoot and their hairs are long and tied up in a traditional knot. The more the weight of the wrestler, the better the advantages for him in the competition. Weight is amassed by over-eating with a high protein stew called chankonabe.



          Kuramac Kokngikan arena of Tokyo is famous for sumo wrestling. Another interesting fact is that in 858 A.D., the two sons of the then emperor of Japan wrestled for the throne. These days it is attaining increasing popularity.