My Science School

After the Second World War, the four ‘Allies’ that fought against Germany - England, France, USA, and the Soviet Union (USSR) - divided Germany into four occupation zones. Berlin lay in the middle of the Soviet zone. Sharp differences of opinion between the three western powers and the Soviet Union led to the founding of the NATO in 1949 and the formation of two German states, the FRG and the GDR. The cold war began with the enemies constantly threatening the use of atomic weapons. Soon, the GDR was blocked out for the West with a border fence and the Berlin wall. The change of events came at the end of the 1980s. The cold war ended, the two German nations got unified, and the USSR split.

 

 

Yes, people protested against him at various points in time. A few hid the opponents of the regime and the Jews from the authorities. Groups like the ‘White Rose’ by The Scholl siblings distributed handouts and asked the people to revolt against the Nazi regime. Businessmen like Oscar Schindler employed the CC detainees in their factories in order to protect them from the death camps. High military officials attempted to assassinate Hitler but without success. Workers in the arms factories intentionally produced defective weapons, and there were revolts in ghettos and concentration camps. In addition, in the occupied territories, the armed groups fought underground. However, most of the people remained inactive out of fear because whosoever was betrayed or discovered had to pay the price with his life.

After acquiring power, Hitler started preparing for expanding his territory to the east. This happened on September 1, 1939. The German armed forces attacked Poland and the Second World War started. Till 1941, the Germans fought together with Italy and Japan against France, Great Britain, USA, and the Soviet Union. The war was waged outside Europe as well. Unlike previous wars, the civil population also suffered mainly from the constant air raids. The war ended in Europe on May 8, 1945, with the surrender of Germany.

In 1215, King John was forced into signing a charter, known as the Magna Carta. As a result he greatly reduced the power he held as the King of England and it led to formation of a powerful parliament. The Magna Carta, a collection of 37 English laws, thus became an important event for citizen’s rights. It curbed the King’s power and forced him to rule according to the old English laws that had prevailed before the Norman invasion. The most important features of the Magna Carta were the freedom of the Church from royal interference and no taxes were to be levied without the consent of the Great Council or Parliament.

 

The holocaust stands for the largest genocide of history. It describes a period of systematic killing of the Jews, who were considered ‘inferior’ by the Nazis. Starting from 1933 they were targeted and were denied basic rights. With the start of the Second World War, they were settled in ghettos, which were special areas marked for them or were deported to the concentration camps (CC). Many died through forced labour and malnutrition or were killed by the guards of these camps. After 1942 seven ‘death camps’ were established in Poland and Belarus, like the ones in Auschwitz, where the Jews were killed in gas chambers.

 

William I, known as William the Conqueror, was born in 1028, in Normandy, France. He became the Duke of Normandy in 1035 at age of just 7 years after his father, Robert I, named him as the heir to Normandy. William invaded England in 1066, and defeated the English forces of King Harold Godwinson in the Battle of Hastings. After suppressing subsequent English revolts in what is now known as the Norman Conquest he became the first Norman King of England. He was one of the famous soldiers of the medieval era who conquered a large kingdom from a smaller base. He established a feudal state that brought order, peace, and law to England. He promoted commerce and formed a long-lasting strong central government. 

The medieval ages are one of the three main periods in European history. They range from the 5th to 15th centuries and begin with the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 A.D. This period is considered a deviation from the path of classical learning of the first period and the Renaissance scholarship of the modern period. North Africa and the Middle East, once part of the Eastern Roman Empire, became Islamic in this period. The medieval period witnessed sustained urbanization in northern and Western Europe. Art and architecture flourished during this period. The struggle for power between the Church and the emerging nation states in this period shaped the western world. 

Art played a very important role in ancient Aztec culture, mainly as an expression of religion and warfare. Music and dance were performed to please the Gods, and not for entertainment or for any other reason. They considered their musical instruments to be holy and mistakes made while playing were believed to be offensive to the Gods. Tattoos also played crucial role in the Aztec culture, and these were often used in rituals. The designs of tattoos were chosen so as to show the children’s devotion to the Gods. 

         Human sacrifice was a common practice among the Aztecs. No other civilization practiced human sacrifice to the degree of Aztecs. For example, in 1487, at the sanctification of for the re-consecration of the Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan, they reportedly sacrificed 84,400 prisoners over the course of four days. However, most historians and archaeologists consider these numbers to be exaggerated and agree that 2000 is a more likely figure. Reports of cannibalism among the Aztecs are also controversial points of debate among the experts.

 

Yuan Dynasty, a Mongol dynasty, was founded by the Mongol leader Kublai Khan. He ruled most of present-day China, and all of modern Mongolia and its surrounding areas from 1271 to 1368. It was considered a division of the Mongol Empire and at the same time an imperial dynasty of China. Although he established the Yuan dynasty, he put his grandfather Genghis Khan’s name on the official record as the founder of the dynasty. Kublai Khan introduced many administrative and economic reforms during his reign. 

Aztecs were ethnic groups of central Mexico who spoke the Nahuatl language and existed in large parts of Mesoamerica in the 14th to 16th centuries. This period was known as the late post-classic period in Mesoamerican chronology. Although they were considered barbaric by the Toltecs and others in the region, they quickly absorbed their neighbours’ culture. The Aztecs controlled their empire primarily by installing friendly rulers in conquered cities, by marriage alliances between ruling dynasties, and by an economic strategy, making conquered cities depend on the centre for trade. Since there was no military protection in conquered cities, it made them easy prey for conquest in turn by the European invaders in the 16th century. 

Genghis Khan, the Great Khan (emperor), founded the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history of the world after his death. He united Mongol tribes to improve their chances in battles. He had power over more of the world than any other conqueror in history. Despite his ferocity, the areas he ruled were given freedom of religion and were allowed to use efficient trade routes. By the end of his life, the Mongol Empire had occupied a considerable part of Central Asia and China. After his death the Mongolian empire was ruled by his son, Ogedei Khan, and grandson, Kubilai Khan. 

 The Mongols were a Central Asian ethnic group living on the Mongolian Plateau and were considered to be barbarians and savages. Today, the Mongolian Plateau is divided into independent Mongolia, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of China, and Buryatia Republic of Russia. They were highly disciplined and experts in using the bow and arrow on horseback. Stretching from Vietnam to Hungary, the Mongol Empire, founded by Genghis Khan, is the largest contiguous empire in the history of the world. 

The Red Fort was built by the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in Old Delhi that served as the capital of the Mughals until 1857. For nearly 200 years, it was the centre of Shah Jahan’s empire where he led a life known of great pomp and ceremony. He would make public appearances, called ‘darshan’, from a large balcony, receive public petitions in the Diwan-I-Am, review important state matters with his principal ministers in the Diwan-I-Khas, discuss the most secret affairs with his kin and most trusted officers in the Royal Tower or Shah Burj, hold lively gatherings and feasts, and then retire to his bedchambers for the night. This fort was the greatest of Mughal palaces and was the heart of Shah Jahan’s empire. 

The Mughal emperor Akbar came to power when he was just 13 years, following the death of his father Humayun. Akbar, under the guidance of his mentor Bairam Khan, expanded his territory throughout northern India and Afghanistan. Although he was not a great warrior, he was tolerant to other religions and was a very fair ruler. He succeeded at winning the trust and support of the entire Hindu population under his control. During his reign, he abolished two taxes: Jizya, a tax imposed on most of the non-Muslims, and a ‘pilgrimage tax’ paid by Hindus who travelled to various Hindu pilgrimage sites. He instituted many administrative reforms which were used throughout the Mughal period.