Radio and Electronics


What are silicon chips?



A silicon chip is a tiny wafer of silicon (a semiconductor) on which a complete electronic device can be produced. An image is produced photographically and etched onto the chip, but it differs from a printed circuit in some important ways. The chip is often microscopically small and contains huge amounts of ‘wiring’. More importantly, part of the process allows other devices to be produced in the manufacturing process, such as tiny resistors and capacitors. So a silicon chip, or integrated circuit, which measures just a few millimeters across, is a complete electronic device.



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How do computers work?



A computer is a device for processing information very rapidly and accurately. It processes words, pictures, sounds and numbers, and some computers can make billions of calculations per second. Most computers are digital, which means that they convert all the data, or information, entering the computer into the digits 0 or 1.



The heart of a computer is a microprocessor, which contains millions of tiny electronic devices on a silicon chip. Other chips form the computer’s memory, where information is stored until needed. Computers vary from small hand-held devices to desktop computers. Large computers used in industry and for military purposes are called mainframe computers.



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How does radar work?



Radar works by sending out a beam of high- frequency radio waves, which are reflected back when they strike a solid object. The radio waves can also be reflected by clouds or other weather features. The reflected waves are collected and used to produce an image. Usually the radar beam is emitted from a rotating scanner, so a complete 360° image is produced. Radar is important in the navigation of ships, aircraft, and weather forecasting.



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What is Artificial Intelligence?


               When we speak of intelligence we refer to the natural intelligence of people which means their inherent mental ability. But artificial intelligence is the intelligence of machines that can think like human minds. Of late, scientists have developed computers which can perform tasks that require intelligence. The successful performance of such tasks which need some thinking and analysis has again generated the old debate whether machine is superior to man or vice versa?



               Nowadays machines can easily recognize and read printed words. Autopilots, which are computerized machines, can fly aircrafts. These intelligent machines can also recognize and respond to sound and voice and also learn to rectify the mistakes committed. Even computers can play chess so brilliantly that they sometimes outwit the human beings. The whole world was stunned when an IBM computer defeated the world champion Gary Kasparov in a game of chess. But does this mean that artificial intelligence is superior to the natural intelligence of man?



               A computer carries out a series of operations as per the programs developed by computer programmers. This means that the human intelligence works behind the artificial intelligence of machines. Artificial intelligence has its limitations as it depends on the amount of stored information in it to make a decision whereas the natural intelligence is not handicapped by any such limitations.



               Now research is underway to create sound links with computers so as to enable them to recognize human speech and thus receive the feedback orally rather than inserting the instructions through the keyboard. This development of direct interaction with machines or computers would be another milestone in the field of artificial intelligence.



               Now artificial intelligence research covers the areas of planning, language understanding, and pattern recognition and knowledge representation. But whether it can ever surpass the natural intelligence of man, only the future can say.



 


How can we measure intelligence Quotient?


          Most scientists define intelligence as the ability to learn, understand and analyze things, accompanied by a good memory and imagination. This implies that intelligence is a mixture of several abilities. We know that intelligence level differs from person to person depending upon the aforesaid traits. But can we measure intelligence so that the difference level can be clearly established? Till today neither the above definition of intelligence has been universally accepted nor do the various tests to measure it have a common appeal. In spite of the difficulties, there is one way widely used to measure intelligence — the Intelligence Quotient (IQ) test. But what is IQ?



          ‘IQ’ is the abbreviation of a psychological phenomenon called ‘Intelligence Quotient’. It is expressed in a number. The IQ of an individual is obtained by dividing his mental age (it is determined by the performance on a standardized intelligence test) by his chronological age and multiplying the result by 100.



          The mental age of an individual is determined with the help of different tests. Persons are classified under different categories depending on their IQ scores. 





          At one time, many psychologists believed that everyone had some degree of inborn intelligence. It was also believed that intelligence was a natural trait like blue eyes, sharp nose etc. and could be ascertained in a single test. But a French psychologist, Alfred Binet, exploded this myth. He worked over this problem in an attempt to develop a test that would help to distinguish between intelligent and dull children. His first tests were given to some French school children in 1905. Later in 1915, these tests were adopted by the German psychologist William Stern and US psychologist Lewis Terman.



          Many psychologists believe that these intelligence tests are not the true indicators of one’s intelligence level and therefore do not give a complete picture of the factors that make up intelligence. For example, some tests measure what one has learnt but not how quickly he has learnt. We know that the grasping power of different people is different. They differ in their ability to understand and remember ideas.



          They also differ in the use of their knowledge and earlier experiences to solve problems. Hence till today there is no fully accepted definition of intelligence.



          It has been, however, concluded that intelligence mainly depends on heredity and the environment. Every person is born with a certain mental ability. The development of that ability may be activated or slowed down by his or her background. The socialization process which includes the environment plays a major role in shaping one’s intelligence. A child becomes a quick learner in areas which he experiences and observes in his day-to-day life. A child who is constantly ridiculed or beaten may develop a complex due to which he or she may not be able to develop his or her intellectual abilities fully. Many children who face discrimination because of race or physical defects fail to develop their mental abilities well. From these facts, it is clear that intelligence is not a natural trait like blue eyes. There is not a single trait that can be called intelligence, nor any single factor which determines it. 


How can we measure IQ?

          Most scientists define intelligence as the ability to learn, understand and analyze things, accompanied by a good memory and imagination. This implies that intelligence is a mixture of several abilities. We know that intelligence level differs from person to person depending upon the aforesaid traits. But can we measure intelligence so that the difference level can be clearly established? Till today neither the above definition of intelligence has been universally accepted nor do the various tests to measure it have a common appeal. In spite of the difficulties, there is one way widely used to measure intelligence — the Intelligence Quotient (IQ) test. But what is IQ? 





          ‘IQ’ is the abbreviation of a psychological phenomenon called ‘Intelligence Quotient’. It is expressed in a number. The IQ of an individual is obtained by dividing his mental age (it is determined by the performance on a standardized intelligence test) by his chronological age and multiplying the result by 100.



          The mental age of an individual is determined with the help of different tests. Persons are classified under different categories depending on their IQ scores.



          At one time, many psychologists believed that everyone had some degree of inborn intelligence. It was also believed that intelligence was a natural trait like blue eyes, sharp nose etc. and could be ascertained in a single test. But a French psychologist, Alfred Binet, exploded this myth. He worked over this problem in an attempt to develop a test that would help to distinguish between intelligent and dull children. His first tests were given to some French school children in 1905. Later in 1915, these tests were adopted by the German psychologist William Stern and US psychologist Lewis Terman. 


Continue reading "How can we measure IQ?"

How can we measure intelligence?

          Most scientists define intelligence as the ability to learn, understand and analyze things, accompanied by a good memory and imagination. This implies that intelligence is a mixture of several abilities. We know that intelligence level differs from person to person depending upon the aforesaid traits. But can we measure intelligence so that the difference level can be clearly established? Till today neither the above definition of intelligence has been universally accepted nor do the various tests to measure it have a common appeal. In spite of the difficulties, there is one way widely used to measure intelligence — the Intelligence Quotient (IQ) test. But what is IQ?



          ‘IQ’ is the abbreviation of a psychological phenomenon called ‘Intelligence Quotient’. It is expressed in a number. The IQ of an individual is obtained by dividing his mental age (it is determined by the performance on a standardized intelligence test) by his chronological age and multiplying the result by 100. 





          The mental age of an individual is determined with the help of different tests. Persons are classified under different categories depending on their IQ scores.



          At one time, many psychologists believed that everyone had some degree of inborn intelligence. It was also believed that intelligence was a natural trait like blue eyes, sharp nose etc. and could be ascertained in a single test. But a French psychologist, Alfred Binet, exploded this myth. He worked over this problem in an attempt to develop a test that would help to distinguish between intelligent and dull children. His first tests were given to some French school children in 1905. Later in 1915, these tests were adopted by the German psychologist William Stern and US psychologist Lewis Terman.



          Many psychologists believe that these intelligence tests are not the true indicators of one’s intelligence level and therefore do not give a complete picture of the factors that make up intelligence. For example, some tests measure what one has learnt but not how quickly he has learnt. We know that the grasping power of different people is different. They differ in their ability to understand and remember ideas.



          They also differ in the use of their knowledge and earlier experiences to solve problems. Hence till today there is no fully accepted definition of intelligence.



          It has been, however, concluded that intelligence mainly depends on heredity and the environment. Every person is born with a certain mental ability. The development of that ability may be activated or slowed down by his or her background. The socialization process which includes the environment plays a major role in shaping one’s intelligence. A child becomes a quick learner in areas which he experiences and observes in his day-to-day life. A child who is constantly ridiculed or beaten may develop a complex due to which he or she may not be able to develop his or her intellectual abilities fully. Many children who face discrimination because of race or physical defects fail to develop their mental abilities well. From these facts, it is clear that intelligence is not a natural trait like blue eyes. There is not a single trait that can be called intelligence, nor any single factor which determines it.



 


What are the different types of calculators?

          A calculator is a device that can do arithmetic calculations with accuracy and speed. They are mainly of two types: mechanical and electronic. Electronic calculators have almost replaced the mechanical type due to their technological superiority, better speed and accuracy. 





          The working principle of calculators went through a continuous process of modification and improvisation. To trace its history, the abacus is considered to be the first calculating machine. It was an oblong frame holding wires on which beads were strung and calculation was done by sliding the beads along the wires. The first mechanical calculator was built in 1623 by Wilhelm Schickard in Germany. A better and more famous one was made by Blaise Pascal in 1642 and ‘Arithnometer’ was the first calculator to go on side, invented by Charles Thomas in 1820. Mechanical calculators had gearwheels inside them and to do the calculations, a handle connected to the gearwheels had to be wound many times. Their disadvantages were that they were large, heavy, slow and prone to breakdown after heavy use. They are no longer manufactured though still in use at a few places.



          The advent of electronic calculators in 1963 was a result of the electronic revolution when the first electronic calculator was produced by the British Bell Punch Company. In fact a calculator developed by Charles Babbage in 1832 is considered to be the forerunner of computer. The electronic calculators use tiny electronic circuit to perform basic arithmetic calculations and some of them can even perform complex calculations involving trigonometry and calculus. The first electronic calculator used thousands of discrete transistors in its circuitry and brought an end of the era of mechanical calculators. The introduction of integrated circuits by Fairchild and Texas Instruments was another milestone in the history of calculators. An integrated circuit contains the equivalent of many thousands of transistors and their associated components and is built up from a single chip of silicon as small as 0.3 sq. cm. This helped in the manufacture of cheap and portable calculators. Most electronic calculators have a memory to store information. 


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What is a Computer Virus?


          Over the last few years computers have invaded almost all spheres of our life by increasingly playing a bigger and bigger role in various ways. The computer revolution got a major shock when computer viruses intruded into the computer and started spoiling the system. The basic purpose of a computer virus was to damage the programs in the computer and spoil the operational mechanism. But do you know what a computer virus is?



          A computer virus is a program that in one way or other infects other programs by either modifying or destroying them and it also spreads or propagates or has the potential to do so. A computer virus has at least the following four characteristics: 



1) It is a set of computer instructions, 2) It is deliberately created, 3) It propagates using host programs 4) It does undesirable things like causing damage or spoiling the operational mechanism. 





          From the above information it is implied that computer viruses are deliberately created software programs and should not be misunderstood as programming errors or hardware malfunctions. The virus engages itself in doing unwanted things like deleting files, formatting disk, changing the keyboard input etc.



          There are different types of computer viruses with different objectives but they can be broadly classified into two types:



1) Resident viruses, 2) Non-resident viruses



          Resident viruses are those which on execution install their code in memory and infect other programs or discs from there. On the other hand non-resident viruses do not install themselves in memory but spread when an infected program is run.



          There are four distinct phases of infection by a computer virus. They are: 1) The dormant phase, 2) The propagation phase, 3) The triggering phase, 4) The action phase. 


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Why is the introduction of Wikipedia a turning point in the history of IT?

      The introduction of Wikipedia has been a major step towards making information accessible to all. It was founded by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger on January 15th, 2001.

       Owned by the non-profit Wikimedia Foundation, Wikipedia is perhaps the largest, and undoubtedly the most popular, reference work online. The content of the site has been used in academic books, researches, and even court cases.



       It was Larry Sanger who coined the name by mixing ‘wiki’ and ‘encyclopedia’. One of the important features of the site is that it can be edited by anyone. The slogan of the company reads, “The free encyclopedia that anyone can edit”.



       At first, there was only the English version of the Wikipedia, but soon other language versions too came up, making it easier for non-English users. In total, there are over 40 million wiki articles in 295 languages including Swedish, German, Russian, Italian, Spanish, and Polish.



       However, it is the English Wikipedia that still remains the reader’s favourite, having nearly 18 million page views every month as of February 2014. It also has to its credit, a total of 5,325,006 articles.



 


What Is Live-Journal?

        Live-Journal is an online social network created by Brad Fitzpatrick on April 15th, 1999 in San Francisco. It affords users a platform for self expression through blogs, journals, or diaries, and an environment to connect with others.



        Similar to a blog, each account on Live-Journal has a home page, exhibiting the user’s entries and comments they have received. Privacy it ensured in such a way that the users get to edit their friend list and set viewer restrictions. This way, Live-Journal acts more or less like a diary.



        There are free, as well as paid accounts on Live-Journal. Paid members earn the advantage of sending text messages, voice notes, and extra storage, as well as an access to the ‘Express Lane’, making the Live-Journal experience more effective.



        Fitzpatrick started it off as an online community to stay in touch with his schoolmates, and keeping them updated. Soon the venture was established commercially, and the company was named Danga Interactive. It turned out so successful that by 2012, there were over 10 million people across the globe using Live-Journal. At present, Live-Journal is partnered with an online newspaper (Gazeta.ru) in Russia.





 

Why is it said that the introduction of Microsoft is a turning point in history of IT?

     The role of Microsoft in the growth of IT is unparalleled. Perhaps the biggest change it caused was making computer technology accessible to people across the world.

     The history of Microsoft began when Bill Gates and Paul Allen developed a version of the programming language BASIC for the MITS Altair 8800, the first microcomputer. This happened in 1975.



     Bill Gates was still a student at Harvard. He then discontinued his studies, and started working on ‘Micro-Soft’.



     The company was established on April 4th, 1975. The hyphen was later removed, and the trade name ‘Microsoft’ was registered officially in 1976. In the same year, Microsoft became independent from MITS, and focused on developing programming languages.



     Microsoft then worked with technology giant IBM for a brief period and in 1981 they introduced the operating system called MS DOS. This made Microsoft a major player in the industry.



     The years that followed witnessed other significant projects from the company. Some of them are - the Windows, a graphical operating systems collective, Office XP, a popular business software suite, Xbox 360, which provided it complete entertainment experience, Surface 3 tablets etc.



     In September 2016, Microsoft announced the formation of the Artificial Intelligence (Al) and Research Group.



 


When was the film invented?

The film as the storage option for images was invented at the beginning of the 19th century. The researchers at that time were experimenting with toxic chemicals to store light reflected from the objects on a long-term basis. The Frenchman, Louis Daguerre, finally succeeded in 1837 to fix the images on a light-sensitive material in a salt bath. This was the first film. However, the exposure times were very long. People had to sit for a long time while the photographer captured their image on a photographic plate. The path to the film roll was paved in 1889 by the American George Eastman - a thin layer of silver salts was applied on flexible plastic celluloid. Digital cameras do not need this because they store everything on a computer chip. 

Where is a simulation program used?

Simulation programs are used for training in areas where the possibility of something going wrong is very dangerous. For instance, a trainee pilot does not fly an aircraft just after training. Before that he practices at a simulator, which behaves like an aircraft, but is on the ground so it does not crash if le pilot makes a mistake. We can also simulate a fault in a power plant or a tsunami. Trainees must demonstrate that they can handle he crisis effectively.

 


How does a CD-ROM work?

A CD-ROM is a plastic disc with a thin aluminium layer from which music, texts, and other data can be retrieved. Like everything else in the world of computers, these files are also stored in the numeric sequence of 1 and 0. In this case, there are tiny grooves for 1 or none for 0. A laser beam in the reader scans these grooves, which reflect the laser beam in different ways. From these laser reflections, the chip in the computer or in the CD player deciphers the data present on the CD, which could be music, text, photos, or complete programs. 

How do robots explore volcanoes?

In 1994, a climbing robot by the name of Dante II was sent for the first time to explore the interior of a volcanic crater in Alaska. After entry into the crater, the measuring devices and cameras, hidden in the legs of the robot, started exploring the dangerous terrain. By analyzing the data and the images received from the surroundings, an onboard computer calculated each step of the robot. It was able to overcome boulders as high as 1 m and descended 70 m deep in the volcano before crashing. Fortunately, it had sent all the data collected and the images to the research station via satellite before it crashed.

Where are computers used today?

Today, small computer chips that give instructions via electrical impulses are present in almost all the devices such as cars, televisions, coffee machines, and mobile phones that we use daily. They also control the robots that explore inaccessible areas such as volcanoes. Even on the distant planet of Mars, the exploration vehicle ‘Sojourner’ could be controlled with the help of computers. Nanorobots help doctors in fighting diseases. Without computer chips there would be no CD-ROMs or simulation programs, which are frequently used for training and research purposes.