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          The Kadambas were an ancient dynasty of Karnataka. They ruled till about AD 560 when they were overthrown by the ChaIukyas. With Mayurasharman being the first king who ruled from AD 345 to 360, the Kadambas ruled from Banavasi in present day Uttara Kannada district.

          The Western Gangas were important rulers of ancient Karnataka, who initially ruled from Kolar. Their rule spanned from about AD 350 to 1000 and in the meantime, their capital was shifted to Talakad. Konganivarman, who called himself Dharma Mahadhiraja was the first Ganga king.

          The early Pallavas ruled a place known as Tondainadu, to the south-east of the Satavahana Empire. The early Pallavas ruled from AD 275 to 550, with Kanchi as their capital. Skandavarman, Simhavarman and Buddhavarman were some of the notable early Pallava kings.

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          The Vakataka Empire was formally established in the last quarter of the third century AD. Purika in Berar was the capital of the Vakataka Empire and Vindhyasakti was one of the earliest kings of the dynasty. Vindhyasakti expanded his territory to-wards the north of the Vindhyas that included areas where the Narmada and Godavari flowed.

          However, the real founder of the Vakataka Empire was Pravarasena I, who ascended the throne after his father Vindhyasakti and called him-self Samrat. Under Pravarasena I, the kingdom expanded further north as far as the Narmada. Prithvisena was the last known king of the dynasty, and their rule ended between AD 515 and 550.

          The lkshvakus ruled over Vengi, the fertile deltas of the Krishna and the Godavari in the east. The lkshvaku dynasty was founded by Vasishthiputra Chantamula who rose to power after the decline of the Satavahanas. He was succeeded by his son Virapurusadata, who came to power in AD 275. However, this dynasty declined by the mid-4th century and the rulers may have been reduced to vassal status.

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          Numerous small kingdoms thrived to the south of the Vindhyas while the Guptas ruled in the north. Some of these smaller kingdoms lasted only for a few hundred years. These kingdoms constantly fought with each other to gain wealth and power.

          Among the main kingdoms in the Deccan were those ruled by the Vakatakas and the lkshvakus. Other kingdoms included those of the Kadambas, Gangas and early Pallavas.

          These kingdoms were gifted with fertile land. So, the kings tried to get control of fertile lands that included the flat coastal strip and the alluvial land between two rivers, and also the ports and other major trade centres.

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          Aryabhatiya, an astronomical treatise of 118 verses written by Aryabhata of Pataliputra came out in the Gupta age. The mathematical section of Aryabhatiya covers algebra, arithmetic, plane and spherical trigonometry, and quadratic equations. It is in this work that Aryabhata displays an awareness of both the zero and the decimal system.

          Apart from Aryabhatiya, he also wrote the Aiya-siddhanta, a lost work on astronomical computations, which is known through the writings of Aryabhata’s contemporary, Varahamihira, and later mathematicians and commentators, including Brahmagupta and Bhaskara I. Romaka Siddhanta was another popular book on astronomy which was written down in the Gupta period. It was influential on the work of Varahamihira.

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         Though scripting was not a prominent practice in India, many works of importance that were earlier recited were documented and given a final form during the Gupta Age. This includes the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and the Panchatantra, some of the Puranas, and the Smritis or law books. Sanskrit literature grew richer and reached its peak during the reign of the Guptas.

          Kalidasa, who authored Meghaduta, Abhijnana Shakuntalam, Raghuvamsa and many other works was the finest writer of the Gupta age. Other interesting literary figures of the period include Visakhadatta, the author of the celebrated drama Mudra Rakshasa, Bhartrihari who renounced the world to lead a saintly life, Vishnusharma, the author of the famous Panchatantra and Shudraka, the dramatist who wrote Mrichchhakatika.

          Another notable contribution of this period is the compilation of Amarakosha by Amarasimha, who was a grammarian and poet in the court of Chandragupta II. Based on the work of Panini and Patanjali, Sanskrit grammar too developed during the Gupta age.

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          The Gupta kingdom was divided into provinces and districts. The cities were governed by councils, which had representatives of different professionals while the villages were looked after by the elders of the villages. Most of the cities were planned and neatly laid out in a grid pattern with roads in a crisscross fashion. The cities had two- and three- storeyed houses. Kalidasa’s accounts talk about people gazing down at the street through latticed windows.

          Apart from grain and vegetables, the markets were stocked with things made of metals, stone, terracotta, ivory, precious and semi-precious stones, and pearls. The pottery was plain red and sometimes had a brown slip or polish. The kingdom had trade relations with the Byzantine Empire, China, Java, Sumatra, Arabia and even Ethiopia.

          Inscriptions describe the Gupta kings as being equal to the gods; Maharajadhiraja and Paramarajadhiraja were some of the elaborate titles that described the Gupta kings.

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          Samudragupta was the son of Chandragupta I, who ascended the throne after defeating his rival Kacha, an obscure prince of the dynasty. He ruled from around AD 335 to 380; we know of his conquests from a rock pillar at Allahabad and a lengthy poem of praise composed by his court-poet Harishena.

          It seems that Samudragupta had directly controlled a large part of the Indo-Gangetic Plain as well as a considerable part of central India. As per the inscription on the pillar at Allahabad, Samudragupta appears to have been a wise king and a strict administrator, who was also compassionate enough to help the poor and the helpless. He had great interest in music and poetry. Some of his gold coins represent him playing on the lyre.

          Harishena, his court poet describes him as the hero of a hundred battles; no Wonder historians call him the ‘Napoleon of India’.

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          The Guptas came into power in North India around the 3rd century AD, much after the establishment of the Satavahana kingdom. They existed till AD 543 and are considered as one of the most important dynasties of North India. The Gupta kingdom spread over much of the Indian subcontinent and some historians identify this period as the Golden Age of India.

          Sri Gupta is the first among the known Gupta kings. He was followed by Ghatotkacha. Though not much is known about their early history, they are assumed to have been minor rulers in east Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II, also known as Vikramaditya are the most notable rulers of the Gupta dynasty. Other Gupta rulers including Purugupta, Buddhagupta, Baladitya etc., were weak rulers.

          The Gupta Empire gradually went into decline and by AD 543, they had lost all their territories. After the Guptas, the Hunas occupied Malwa and part of central India and the eastern states became independent. The Maitrakas of Valabhi established themselves in western India while the Vardhanas or Pushyabhutis occupied Haryana.

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          The vast empire of the Satavahanas had a feudal administrative system. The empire was divided into smaller portions headed by feudal lords, who managed the administration and land revenue system. The Satavahana rulers did not believe in the divine rights of a king; they ruled in accordance with the directives of the Dharma Shastras and social customs.

          The king was the head of the government and the protector of his people, who had a council of ministers to aid him in rightful administration.

          The Satavahana kings were also known for the friendly ties with their subjects; they regarded their subjects as their own children and always looked after their welfare. They were also known for their efficient military with the help of which the Satavahanas succeeded in expanding their empire. The king himself was the commander-in-chief of his forces and fought battles alongside other soldiers. He also kept a regiment posted in each village for maintaining peace and order at the expense of the rural inhabitants.

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          The Satavahana kingdom was built around the 1st century BC, in the ruins of the Mauryan Empire. Also known as the Andhra dynasty, the Satavahana kingdom was situated in the north-western region of Deccan, with its capital at Pratishtana.

          The Satavahana dynasty was founded by Simuka and his successors established their authority, from the mouth of the Krishna to the rest of the Deccan plateau. The Satavahana king killed the last Kanva ruler of Magadha and took over his kingdom.

          Due to his policy of military expansion, Satakarni I was the earliest of the Satavahana kings to receive widespread recognition. He defied Kharavela of Kalinga and was known as the 'Lord of the West. Satakarni I gained control over the region of Sanchi and his conquests took him far to the north of the Narmada into eastern Malwa. After his conquest of the Godavari valley in the south, he came to be known as the ‘Lord of Dakshinpatha’.

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          The Pandyas, Cholas and Cheras were blessed with fertile land where rice, ragi, sugarcane, pepper and spices were grown. The kingdoms were neatly divided into cities, towns, ports and villages. The royal palaces were well decorated and surrounded by gardens.

          Nedunjeliyan’s palace was a marvel; it had priceless lamps, ivory beds and ‘beautiful cushions. The rich had houses built of brick, while the poor and the villagers lived in mud and thatched structures.

          All the three kingdoms were known for their large armies comprising of elephants, horses, chariots and foot-soldiers. Horses were imported from overseas. The kingdoms of the south had good trade relations inland and abroad, and were a hub of art and crafts.

         Religions of the south were greatly influenced by the north; though there were Brahmanas, Jains, Buddhists and Ajivikas, Brahmanas gained dominance over time. Local people also worshipped hero-stones that were erected when someone was killed in battle.

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          There was no practice of recording history during the Chola period, but Ashoka’s inscriptions talk about the Cholas. Elara and Karikala Chola were two important Chola kings; Elara conquered Sri Lanka in 2nd century BC following which, Karikala Chola built Puhar, a large port that acted as a centre of trade.

          The name Karikala meant ‘elephant feller’ or ‘charred leg’. He was very rich; the tale of a poet who received a gift of 1,600,000 gold pieces from Karikala Chola is famous.

          Another Chola king, Kochchenganan is mentioned in Kalavali by Poygayar. He fought a battle with the Chera king Kanaikkal lrumporai following which the latter was imprisoned. Poygayar, who was a friend of the Chera king, wrote a poem praising Kochchenganan’s battle; Kochchenganan was pleased with the poem and freed the prisoner! The Chola monarchs were good administrators; they were friendly to the subjects and therefore approachable. Justice was meted out directly by the king on most occasions. Chola kings often took to the battlefield in person. They also had good trade relations with the Roman Empire.

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          Much of what is said about the Pandyas in modern histories comes from archaeological and numismatic evidences. The Pandyan kingdom lay to the south of the Mauryan Empire and their capital was shifted from Korkai, to Koodal (now Madurai) during the reign of Nedunjeliyan I. Nedunjeliyan II is the most popular warrior among the early Pandyas; he won the battle at Talaialanganam, against an army of Cholas and Cheras and five other kingdoms combined.

          With Korkai being the hub of trade, the Pandyan kingdom was known for its pearl fisheries. They even had active maritime trade relationships with the west; they used to export pearls, spices, ivory and shells. The Pandyan Empire was also home to famous temples including the Meenakshi Temple in Madurai, and Nellaiappar Temple in Tirunelveli.

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          Long time ago, three literary meetings (sangams) were held in Madurai under the patronage of the Pandya kings. Poets and writers came to these sangams to recite their works and listen to the works of others. This period is known as the Sangam Age and the works that were composed by the Tamil poets during the Sangam Age is known today as Sangam Literature.

          Though some of the works were lost in time, most of it including Tholkappiyam- a book of grammar, Ettutogai- eight collections of poems and two long poems known as Pattuppattu exist even today. The earliest work among these is the Tholkappiyam. Authored by Tholkappiyar, the book provides information on social, economic and political conditions of the Sangam Age along with treatises on Tamil grammar.

          Pathinenkilkanakku, eighteen works dealing with ethics and morals were composed post the Sangam Age among which Thiruvalluvar’s Thirukkural is the most popular. Two other popular works, Silappathigaram by Ilango Adigal and Manimekalai by Sittalai Sattanar belong to the post-Sangam period.

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