My Science School

President John Fitzgerald Kennedy's assassin in 1963 is generally assumed to have been lee Harvey Oswald, a 24-year-old self-styled Marxist. The police evidence is that both the bullets that hit the President were fired by Oswald from a sixth floor window.

The 46-year-old President and his wife jacqueline has come to Dallas, Taxes, on a speaking tour and were on their way in a motorcade to attend an official Lunch when the fatal shots were fired at 12.30 pm on November 22. Kennedy's death was announced officially at 1.30 pm, and Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson was sworn in as the new President before flying back to Washington.

Lee Oswald, who was arrested shortly after the shooting, was being transferred to Dallas county jail on November 24 when Jack ruby, a 52-year old nightclub operator, shot and killed him at close range in full view of a nation-wide television audience. So the evidence against Oswald was never allowed to be tested publicly in a court of law. This led to a spate of theories that Oswald was not really the assassin or that he had accomplices, but these have since been largely discounted.

Picture Credit : Google

The famous Charge of the Light Brigade took place eight miles south of the great port of Sebastopol on the west coast of the Crimean peninsula, near the small harbour of Balaclava. During the Crimean War (1854-56), when the forces of France, Britain and Turkey fought the Russian Army, Balaclava was the Allied base. It was defended by lines of earth-works on the hills around the harbour.

On October 25, 1854, Russian forces attempted to break these lines. Over-running some Turks on the heights and seizing their guns, the Russians then descended to the plains and attacked the British forces. The British Heavy Brigade drove them back over a low ridge of hills crossing the plain.

Then occurred one of the most famous feats in the chronicles of the British Army, the Charge of the Light Brigade. Led by Lord Cardigan, 673 horsemen rode up a valley under heavy Russian fire. They charged a mile and a half up the valley to capture some Russian guns. They achieved their objective, but only 195 men returned. Among them was Lord Cardigan, who behaved as if the charge had been of no special significance. Boarding his yacht, where he was living during the campaign, he bathed, dined and went to bed.

Picture Credit : Google

In the early days of the American War of Independence each state adopted a flag of its own. South Carolina had a flag of red and blue stripes adorned with rattlesnakes. That of Massachusetts bore a pine tree. Even the colours carried by different regiments differed accordingly to the taste of their commanders. This was confusing, especially at sea, where one ship might well end up firing on her own ally!

The Rhodes Island flag was the first to contain any stars. There were 13 stars representing the 13 colonies which later were to become the first members of the United States.

In 1776 Washington's new continental army displayed its flag. This time there were no stars. Still in the top left-hand corner was the British Grand Union flag, with its crosses of St George and St Andrew-a sign, one supposes, that independence was not yet the American's intention. But around the British emblem appeared the stripes: six white horizontal stripes and seven red ones, again giving the total of 13.

It was not until 1777, almost a year after the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, that Congress adopted a design for the national flag. This consisted of 13 stars (in place of the Grand Union flag) and 13 stripes, alternately red and white.

Every time a new state was accepted in the Union a new star and a new stripe would be added to the flag. By 1795 the flag was getting a little cramped; there was no room for any more stripes. So Congress decided that the flag should contain only 13 stripes representing the original states, and that a star for each new state should be added on the July 4 following its admission to the Union.

In 1959 Alaska became the 49th state and in the same year Hawaii became the 50th and most recent.

Picture Credit : Google

The American Civil War (1861-65) arose chiefly over the question of Negro slavery. In the 15th Century the Portuguese found a ready market for Negro slaves, which they captured during their expeditions along the African coasts.

As the American continent developed, these slaves were eagerly sought to labour on the cotton and tabacco plantations, in mines, or in general farm work. Between 1680 and 1786 more than 2,000,000 slaves were transported and it was not until 1833 that the United Kingdom Parliament passed an Act that set free all slaves in its territories.

In the United States the struggle between the slave-owning southern states and those of the North, where there was no slavery, was long and bitter. As the frontier moved westward, new states were seeking admission to the Union. Some had slaves and some did not.

In the north a growing party demanded immediate abolition of slavery, while in the south were some who threatened to leave the Union rather than give up their slaves. In 1860, Abraham Lincoln (1809-65) who favoured the gradual abolition of slavery, was elected President of the United States. Next year seven southern states left the Union and formed the Confederate States, with Jefferson Davis as president. On April 12, the officer in charge of Port Sumter, at Charleston, West Virginia, refused to surrender it to Confederate soldiers, who opened fire and thus began the Civil War.

Although the North had greater numbers, the South had better generals and the war dragged on for four years, with no fewer than 2,260 battles and skirmishes. In 1863, these were great victories for the North at Gettysburg and Vicksburg. It was at Gettysburg that Lincoln delivered his famous address promising freedom for all.

General Lee, commander of the Confederate armies, surrendered on April 9 at Appomattox Court House Virginia.

Picture Credit : Google

Sir Francis Drake (c. 1540-96), the most celebrated of the English "sea-dogs" of Queen Elizabeth I, "signed the King of Spain's beard" during a daring raid in 1587. It was Drake's own phrase for the action. He led a force of small ships into Cadiz harbour in southern Spain and burned 33 vessels and a large quantity of stores that were being prepared to take part in an invasion of England. By so doing he delayed the sailing of the Spanish Armada and gave his country an extra year to prepare for the coming attack.

When in 1588 King Philip II's navy of 132 ships did come sailing up the Channel, Drake, as vice admiral of the English fleet, played a chief part in the running fight that drove the Spaniards to disaster. The story goes that when news of the Armada's approach reached the waiting fleet, Lord Howard of Effingham, the English commander, was playing bowls at Plymouth, Devon, with some of his captains. He was for putting to sea at once, but Drake persuaded him to wait, remarking that there was plenty of time to "finish the game and thrash the Spaniards, too".

The delay lured the Spanish ships into the trap. Next day the English ships poured out of the Channel ports to attack the rear of the Armada as it sailed eastwards in a great half-moon. After a week of harassment with the English "plucking the feathers" of the Armada one by one, the Spanish galleons anchored off Calais. But at night they were forced to put to sea when Drake sent fireships drifting down on them. Still attacked from the rear, the Spaniards decided to try to escape by sailing northwards round the British Isles. Fewer than half their ships reached Spain.

Drake was born at Tavistock in Devon but was brought up in the port of Chatham in Kent where he talked to sailors and nourished his love of the sea. One of his greatest exploits was to sail round the world (1577-80), in the Golden Hind looting Spanish ships and settlements on the way. On his return he was knighted by Queen Elizabeth aboard the Golden Hind in the Thames at Deptford. He made many other expeditions against the Spaniards. During one of them he died of dysentery.

Picture Credit : Google

There is a legend in Ethiopia that her emperors are descended from the Queen of Sheba and Solomon, King of Israel, who died about 937 B.C. The story relates that Aksum, the once-splendid city on the high central plateau of Ethiopia, was formerly called Sheba. It is said Queen Makeda of Aksum visited King Solomon at Jerusalem, and that their son, Menelik, became the first Ethiopian emperor.

But Aksum in the time of Solomon was probably not large enough to have a ruler of such wealth and power as the queen of the story. However, there could have been such a Queen of Sheba in the Yemen, the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula.

Picture Credit : Google

Ceremonial suicide, or hara-kiri, was undertaken by members of the samurai (warrior) class in old Japan. Voluntary hara-kiri dated back to the 12th Century, and was committed to wipe out the dishonour of defeat in battle, as a protest at the behaviour of a superior, and for similar reasons.

The world means "belly-cutting". If carried out according to the rules, it was a slow and extremely painful means of suicide, meant to demonstrate the military virtues of great courage and extreme self-control.

Another version of hara-kiri was observed when a samurai was sentenced to be beheaded for a crime. To escape the shame of the common executioner, he was allowed to stab himself with a short sword. Immediately afterwards the sentenced samurai would be decapitated by a friend or relative waiting behind him.

A recent case of hara-kiri occurred on November 26, 1970, after the well-known Japanese author, Yukio Mishima, failed to incite a regiment of Japanese soldiers to join his "Association of Shields and stage a coup d’etat. Mishima, who was once mentioned as a possible Nobel Prize winner, is shown in full Samurai warrior's uniform.

Picture Credit : Google

West Point, the United States military academy for the training of regular army officers was established on March 16, 1802 at West Point on the Hudson River about 50 miles north of the city of New York. The place was already famous as the scene, 22 years earlier, of a dramatic incident in the War of Independence, when the traitor Benedict Arnold failed in an attempt to betray the strategically important position to the British.

Three chief reasons for the formation of the academy were: first, the fact that in the War of Independence the United States had been forced to rely on foreign military technicians; second, the belief of army leaders, including George Washington, that military techniques must be studied and not acquired solely through experience; third, the desire of some reformers for a new approach to the education of officers.

In 1812 the academy, which had been training only engineers, was reorganized and given more scope. In 1866 an Act of Congress was passed to allow the selection of an academy superintendent who was not an engineer.

West Point is under the direct control of the army and the four-year course of instruction leads to a science degree and a commission of second lieutenant in the regular army. Studies are balanced between mathematics and engineering sciences (55 per cent) and the humanities and social sciences (45 per cent). The 3,100 cadets must be between 17 and 22 years old and unmarried, with a high school education. Aptitude tests and a medical examination must be passed before admission.

Picture Credit : Google

On July 15, 1815, after his defeat at Waterloo, Napoleon surrendered to the British and was exiled to the remote island of St Helena in the South Atlantic, 1,200 miles off the African coast.

The actual surrender was made to Captain Maitland of the British frigate Bellerophon. Napoleon was transferred to the Northumberland and then taken to St Helena.

This island is only 10% miles long and 6½ miles wide. Napoleon had no force at his disposal, as he did on the Mediterranean island of Elba, where he was given sovereignty during his first exile.

He was to spend six years on the island before his death. He frequently quarrelled with Sir Hudson Lowe, the Governor, who was very conscientious at thwarting all Napoleon's hopes of escape. He never gave up these attempts, but he also found time to write his memoirs

He died on May 5, 1821. There were rumours that he had been poisoned, but modern historians and doctors believe it is far more likely that he had cancer of the stomach.

Picture Credit : Google

Buddha's full name was Gautama Buddha, and he lived in north-east India. He was born into a warrior tribe called the Sakyas in the 6th Century B.C. and became the founder of the religion called Buddhism.

Although he was of noble birth, Buddha was not proud and fond of luxury. Even when young, he was serious and thought a great deal. He decided it was better to lead a humble, religious life.

When he was 29, he left his home and became a monk. He found strength in quiet meditation. He saw that the world was full of suffering, and wanted to help people. So he became a wandering teacher.

Buddha gave his first sermon at Benares on the River Ganges. Here, he outlined the beliefs which have guided Buddhists ever since. Buddha said first of all that worldly life cannot give final happiness. You should not be either completely self-indulgent or too strict with yourself. You should try to follow a middle path, maintaining inner peace and discipline. A Buddhist s fine spiritual goal is a blissful state called Nirvana, in which he is completely calm and free from any pain or anxiety.

The name Buddha means "The Enlightened One". He died near Benares when he was 80. By then he had organized a community of monks, called the Sangha, to carry on his teachings.

The main countries where Buddhism is practised are Burma, Thailand, Ceylon and Japan. There are about 177,000 Buddhists in North America.

Picture Credit : Google

Lord Protector of the Common-wealth of England, Scotland and Ireland was the title assumed by Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658), the man who, above all others, brought about the downfall and execution of Charles I.

Cromwell was born at Huntingdon, the son of a Protestant family who had acquired lands at the time of the Reformation. When he was 29 he entered the House of Commons. Sir Philip Warwick gave this description of him at that time: His stature was of a good size; his sword close to his side; his countenance swollen and reddish; his voice sharp and untenable; and his eloquence full of fervour." He proved an active and determined member, remarkable for his Puritan enthusiasm.

When civil war between Charles and Parliament broke out in 1642, Cromwell returned home and set about raising a well-disciplined cavalry regiment of "God-fearing men who became famous as the Ironsides and proved their worth in the defeat of Prince Rupert at the Battle of Marston Moor on July 2, 1644. A year later he was second-in-command at the decisive Battle of Naseby when the New Model Army, largely based on the principles of Cromwell's Ironsides, crushed the royalist forces.

After Charles's surrender Cromwell was the man chiefly responsible for the trial, condemnation and execution of the King. By his successful military campaigns against the Scots and the Irish, he forced them to submit to Parliament's authority, but when Parliament quarrelled with the Army Cromwell dismissed it in 1653 and assumed the title of Lord Protector.

After Cromwell's death in 1658, the title passed for a few months to his son Richard, a weak man powerless to resist the tide of reaction then setting in. In 1660 the Stuart dynasty was resorted in the person of Charles II. Cromwell's remains were removed from West-minister Abbey, hung up in chains like the body of a common criminal and buried beneath the scaffold at Auburn.

Picture Credit : Google

The Archbishop of Canterbury is appointed by the Crown, that is to say by the sovereign acting upon the advice of the Prime Minister. He is then elected by the chapter of Canterbury Cathedral, who represent the clergy of the diocese. After this election has been confirmed by legal representatives of the diocese, he is consecrated as archbishop, and pays homage to the sovereign for the possessions of his province. Finally the new archbishop is enthroned in the cathedral.

As the Primate of the Church of England, the Archbishop of Canterbury takes precedence over all the nobility, except those of royal blood. It is he who places the crown on the sovereign's head at the coronation.

The province of Canterbury has three dioceses, each ministered by a bishop. The amount of authority that the Archbishop has over his bishops is not clearly defined, but experts in church law maintain that he must accept their majority decision.

Picture Credit : Google

Herodotus, a Greek author, known as the "father of history" was born sometime in the 5th Century B.C. His book History,

Describing the wars between Greece and Persia, is generally considered to be the first deliberate attempt to see the events of the time against a historical background.

"I am giving," he says in his opening words, "the results of my inquiries (historiai) so that the memory of what men have done shall not perish from the world nor their achievements, whether of Greeks or of foreigners, go unsung. They form my theme, and the cause why they went to war."

Picture Credit : Google

Christopher Columbus, on his famous voyage of 1492, made indfall after nine weeks at sea on an island he named San Salvador Now also known as Watling Island in the Bahamas. Columbus, a Genoese, set sail with three ships, the Santa Maria, the Pinta and the Nina, under the patronage of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain. This voyage was the first of his attempts to find a sea route to Asia.

After leaving San Salvador, Columbus discovered the island of Cuba and then Haiti, where he left some members of his crews garrisoning a fort called La Navidad. His flagship had been wrecked and there was not enough room on the remaining two ships to take all the men home.

Believing that he had reached Asia, Columbus returned to Spain where he was given a great reception. He came back with some "Indians" to show at court and evidence of the existence of gold in the New World.

On his last voyage in 1502, Columbus reached Honduras. After much hardship, he returned to Spain in 1504 and died in 1506, an impoverished and broken man.

Picture Credit : Google

When Admiral Horatio Nelson, Britain's greatest naval hero, was given the signal to retreat at the Battle of Copenhagen in 1801, he put his telescope to his blind eye and remarked: "I really do not see the signal." The battle continued until the Danes were forced to agree to a truce that put an end to Napoleon's hope of overthrowing British naval supremacy.

This event in the Napoleonic War occurred after Tsar Paul I, an-ally of Napoleon, had formed “armed neutrality against the British with Denmark, Sweden and Prussia. A British fleet under Admiral Sir Hyde Parker, with Nelson as second-in-command, was sent to attack the Danish fleet lying at anchor a mile off Copenhagen in the narrow sound between Denmark and Sweden.

Faced with 40 enemy ships-of-the-line in a strong defensive position protected by shore batteries, Parker agreed that Nelson should open the battle with 12 ships-of-the-line and a number of smaller vessels. While Parker waited at the entrance to the sound, Nelson sailed through the tortuous chanels between the sandbanks. The fighting began at 10 am on April 2, and was carried on by both sides with great courage and stubbornness. At 1 pm Parker saw that Nelson's force was in great danger and hoisted signal 39 an order to break off the action.

Nelson's reaction was typical: "Leave off action! No, damn me, if I do!" Turning to his captain he remarked: "You know, Foley, I have only one eye. I have a right to be blind sometimes." After pretending not to see the signal, he remarked: "Damn the signal! Keep mine for closer battle flying. That's the way I answer such signals. Nail mine to the mast." After considerable losses on both sides, the Danes accepted the offer of a truce which effectively ended the threat to Britain of the Northern Alliance.

Some experts believe that there was an understanding between parker and Nelson, also known to Foley, whereby Nelson would be allowed to use his own judgement even if officially ordered to stop fighting.

Picture Credit : Google