WHAT IS MONKEYPOX?

Monkeypox is a zoonotic virus, which transmits disease from animals to humans, with symptoms very similar to smallpox but less severe. Monkeypox is a rare viral infection which is usually mild and from which most people recover in a few weeks. It is related to smallpox, which killed millions around the world every year before its eradication in 1980, but has far less severe symptoms. The virus does not spread easily between people and the risk to the wider public is said to be very low.  Outbreaks of the virus have been found in Europe, Australia and America. * The symptoms often include a fever and rash - but the infection is usually mild and clears up on its own, lasting between 2 and 4 weeks.

The World Health Organization (WHO) says the virus can be contained with the right response in countries outside of Africa where it is not usually detected.

MONKEYPOX ORIGINS

  • Discovered in 1958  in colonies of research monkeys. First human case identified in 1970 in Democratic Republic of Congo.
  • Occurs mostly in remote parts of Central and West Africa
  • Virus has two main types - West African strain thought to be milder than Central African variant

HUMAN-TO-HUMAN TRANSMISSION

  • Via respiratory droplets - requires prolonged face-to-face contact
  • Close contact with body fluids or lesions, or by touching contaminated clothing or bedding

GENERAL SYMPTOMS

Incubation: Time from infection to symptoms can range from 5-21 days.

Initial illness: Fever, headache, muscle aches, swellings, exhaustion.

Itchy rash: May develop on face, then spread to hands and feet.

Lesions: Go through various stages until scabs form and fall off. Lesions can cause scarring.

Outcome: Illness typically lasts for 2-4 weeks. In Africa, monkeypox has been shown to be fatal in up to 1 in 10 people who contract disease.

Treatment: Smallpox vaccine proven to be 85% effective against monkeypox. Antiviral drugs could help relieve symptoms.

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WHAT ARE THE FUNCTIONS, DESEASE AND TREATMENTS OF THE LIVER?

The liver is a large, meaty organ that sits on the right side of the belly. Weighing about 3 pounds, the liver is reddish-brown in color and feels rubbery to the touch. Normally you can't feel the liver, because it's protected by the rib cage.

The liver has two large sections, called the right and the left lobes. The gallbladder sits under the liver, along with parts of the pancreas and intestines. The liver and these organs work together to digest, absorb, and process food.

The liver's main job is to filter the blood coming from the digestive tract, before passing it to the rest of the body. The liver also detoxifies chemicals and metabolizes drugs. As it does so, the liver secretes bile that ends up back in the intestines. The liver also makes proteins important for blood clotting and other functions.

Types of liver disease include:

Hepatitis: Inflammation of the liver, usually caused by viruses like hepatitis A, B, and C. Hepatitis can have non-infectious causes too, including heavy drinking, drugs, allergic reactions, or obesity.
Cirrhosis: Long-term damage to the liver from any cause can lead to permanent scarring, called cirrhosis. The liver then becomes unable to function well.
Liver cancer: The most common type of liver cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, almost always occurs after cirrhosis is present.
Liver failure: Liver failure has many causes including infection, genetic diseases, and excessive alcohol.
Ascites: As cirrhosis results, the liver leaks fluid (ascites) into the belly, which becomes distended and heavy.
Gallstones: If a gallstone becomes stuck in the bile duct draining the liver, hepatitis and bile duct infection (cholangitis) can result.
Hemochromatosis: Hemochromatosis allows iron to deposit in the liver, damaging it. The iron also deposits throughout the body, causing multiple other health problems.
Primary sclerosing cholangitis: A rare disease with unknown causes, primary sclerosing cholangitis causes inflammation and scarring in the bile ducts in the liver.
Primary biliary cirrhosis: In this rare disorder, an unclear process slowly destroys the bile ducts in the liver. Permanent liver scarring (cirrhosis) eventually develops.

Liver Treatments

Hepatitis A treatment: Hepatitis A usually goes away with time.
Hepatitis B treatment: Chronic hepatitis B often requires treatment with antiviral medication.
Hepatitis C treatment: Treatment for hepatitis C depends on several factors.
Liver transplant: A liver transplant is needed when the liver no longer functions adequately, whatever the cause.
Liver cancer treatment: While liver cancer is usually difficult to cure, treatment consists of chemotherapy and radiation. In some cases, surgical resection or liver transplantation is performed.
Paracentesis: When severe ascites -- swelling in the belly from liver failure -- causes discomfort, a needle can be inserted through the skin to drain fluid from the abdomen.
ERCP (Endocscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography): Using a long, flexible tube with a camera and tools on the end, doctors can diagnose and even treat some liver problems.

Credit :  WebMD

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World finally gets a malaria vaccine

October 6, 2021, marks a historic day in humanity's fight against malaria, as the WHO approved the rollout of the malaria vaccine. RTS,S/AS01 also known as Mosquirix among children living in sub-Saharan Africa and other at-risk regions. Though the vaccine protects against only 30% of infections, its rollout is a breakthrough, because developing a vaccine against complex malaria parasite is a herculean task.

Mosquirix was developed by British drug manufacturer GlaxoSmithKline in collaboration with health non-profit PATH and a network of African research centres, with partial funding from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. The vaccine is the result of 30 years of research and it targets Plasmodium falciparum, the most common parasite causing malaria in Africa. The vaccine offers no protection against the other four species such as P vivax, P ovale, P knowlesi and P malariae which are prevalent in Southeast Asia, Americas and Europe.

Countries will need to take individual decisions on whether to introduce the vaccine or not and also work out funding arrangements on their own.

The WHO recommends the use of RTS,S for the prevention of Plasmodium falciparum malaria in children living in regions with moderate to high transmission as defined by the global health body.

“RTS,S/AS01 malaria vaccine should be provided in a schedule of 4 doses in children from 5 months of age for the reduction of malaria disease and burden,” the WHO said.

According to its estimates, more than 260,000 African children under the age of five die from malaria annually. That is why WHO Director General Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus described the approval of the vaccine as a “historic” development. 

“This is a historic moment. The long-awaited malaria vaccine for children is a breakthrough for science, child health and malaria control. Using this vaccine on top of existing tools to prevent malaria could save tens of thousands of young lives each year,” he said in a statement.

Credit : The Print 

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WHO releases new recommendations on human genome editing

While research on gene editing has been happening for a while, the idea of performing it on humans on a large scale has been a subject of debate. The World Health Organisation (WHO) published a slew of recommendations in July 2021, on how to ensure gene editing research is used for the public good. It called on countries to stop any research that might lead to the birth of genetically edited human beings. The WHO established a committee in 2018 to develop standards for human genome editing. The committee produced a series of nine key, recommendations in its report. Among other things, it stressed the need for regulation and the creation of a database to track all forms of gene manipulation, providing a full overview, including pre-clinical research.’

The reports deliver recommendations on the governance and oversight of human genome editing in nine areas, including human genome editing registries; international research and medical travel; illegal, unregistered, unethical or unsafe research; intellectual property; and education, engagement and empowerment. The recommendations focus on systems-level improvements that WHO believes are needed to build capacity in all countries to ensure that human genome editing is used safely, effectively and ethically. In addition, the reports provide a new governance framework that identifies specific tools, institutions and scenarios to illustrate practical challenges in implementing, regulating and overseeing research into the human genome. 

Moving forward, the organization will convene a small expert committee to consider next steps for a human genome editing registry. WHO will also convene multisector stakeholders to develop an accessible mechanism for confidential reporting of concerns about possibly illegal, unregistered, unethical and unsafe human genome editing research.

Credit : AABB 

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How do antibodies target corona virus?

People who have recovered from mild corona virus infections produce antibodies that target three different parts of the virus's spike protein that it uses to latch on to human cells

  • A National Institutes of Health-funded study, published recently in the journal Science, offers the most detailed picture yet of the array of antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 found in people who've fully recovered from mild cases of corona virus.
  • Most studies of natural antibodies that block corona virus have focussed on those that target a specific portion of the spike protein known as the receptor-binding domain (RBD). The RBD is the portion of the spike that attaches directly to human cells. As a result, antibodies explicitly targeting the RBD are an excellent place to begin searching for antibodies capable of fighting the virus.
  • However, researchers at The University of Texas at Austin found that most antibodies target other portions of the spike protein than the RBD. The study led by Gregory Ippolito and Jason Lavinder, likens the spike protein to an umbrella, with the RBD at the tip of the "canopy." While some antibodies bind to the RBD, many others target the protein's canopy, known as the N-terminal domain (NTD).
  • The team also found that about 40 % of antibodies target yet another portion of the spike called the S2 subunit. Additionally, the S2 subunit could make an ideal target for a possible pan-corona virus vaccine since fewer mutations exist at this portion of the spike.
  • The study will prove helpful in designing vaccine booster shots or future vaccines tailored to fight coronavirus variants of concern.

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What is dengue and what are its causes?

Hospitals in Haryana, Kerala, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Delhi, and Jammu and Kashmir are witnessing a surge in dengue cases with the number of cases reported exceeding one lakh. The Union health ministry has sent teams of experts to the nine States and Union Territories to support them in public health measures for control and management of the disease. What is dengue, what causes it, what are the symptoms to look out for, and how is it treated? Let's find out.

A mosquito-borne infection Dengue is a mosquito-borne viral infection that is transmitted to people through the bite of an infected Aedes aegypti mosquito. When a mosquito bites us, it not only sucks blood but also secretes saliva that enters our bloodstream. This is how an infected mosquito passes on the infection. Dengue is a seasonal disease which witnesses a surge in cases post-rain. Dengue virus causes fever and haemorrhagic symptoms.

Dengue infections are caused by four related viruses namely DEN-1, DEN-2, DEN-3, and DEN-4 belonging to the genus Flavivirus. These four viruses are called serotypes because each has different interactions with the antibodies in our blood serum. The four dengue virus serotypes mean it is possible to be infected more than once. In other words, being infected from one dengue virus does not guarantee protection from the other three. Once a person gets infected, he becomes the main carrier of the virus and passes it to uninfected mosquitoes. After recovery, he becomes immune to that particular serotype for lifetime.

Flying killers

Mosquitoes thrive in tropical regions. Dengue mosquitoes breed only in clear water. They lay eggs on the surface of the water which hatch in eight days (or even less in extremely warm weather).

Mosquitoes take refuge in dark spaces indoors and use puddles, tree holes, discarded vehicle tyres, and plant pots around homes to breed. If water is not allowed to stagnate, mosquitoes cannot multiply. Did you know that only female mosquitoes are capable of biting us? They feed on our blood to source protein for their eggs.

According to the World Health Organization, mosquito-borne diseases kill several million people worldwide, every year.

Dengue symptoms

Dengue causes a severe flu-like illness that may last up to a week. In some cases, the fever could be life-threatening, resulting in bleeding, a fall platelet count, and sometimes extremely low blood pressure. Dengue symptoms include high fever, severe headache, pain behind the eyes, nausea, vomiting, acute stomach ache, muscle and joint pain, and skin rash. They begin to manifest three to 14 days after the bite. The severity of the symptoms increases if the infection is not treated properly and in time. Seek medical advice immediately if you have a fever or develop any of the dengue symptoms.

At present, there are no vaccines for dengue or specific medications to treat it. Pain killers are prescribed for relief from symptoms. Drinking plenty of fluids and taking ample rest are also advised. So the best way to protect ourselves from dengue is to avoid mosquito bites by sleeping under the net using mosquito repellent, etc.

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What is RTS,S/AS01 malaria vaccine?

October 6, 2021, marks a historic day in humanity's fight against malaria, as the World Health Organization (WHO) approved the rollout of the malaria vaccine, RTS.S/AS01 (RTS.S) among children living in sub-Saharan Africa and other at-risk regions.

Malaria is a deadly infectious disease that claims more than 4 lakh lives every year around the world. It is caused by Plasmodium parasites that are transmitted to people through the bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes, called the malaria vector. Among the five parasite species that cause malaria in humans, Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax pose the greatest threat.

Who will get the vaccines and how efficient is it in preventing the spread of malaria?

WHAT is RTS,S/AS01?

RTS,S/AS01 or Mosquirix (trade name) has been developed by British drug manufacturer GlaxoSmithKline in collaboration with Seattle-based health non-profit PATH and a network of African research centres, with partial funding from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. The vaccine is the result of 30 years of research and it targets Plasmodium falciparum, the most common parasite causing malaria in Africa. The vaccine offers no protection against the other four species such as P vivax, P ovale, P knowlesi and P malariae which are prevalent in Southeast Asia, Americas and Europe.

RTS,S was created in 1987 by scientists working in GlaxoSmithKline laboratories. The European Medicines Agency issued a positive scientific opinion on the vaccine in July 2015, concluding that the benefits of the vaccine outweigh the risks

RTS.S has been rigorously tested through a series of clinical trials since 2019 in seven African countries (Burkina Faso, Gabon, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, and Tanzania).

Who is it for?

The WHO has recommended that the RTS,S/AS01 malaria vaccine be used for the prevention of P. falciparum malaria in children living in regions with moderate to high transmission as defined by it. The vaccine has been recommended to be provided in a schedule of four doses in children from 5 months of age.

What is its efficacy?

The current approval of the vaccine is based on the results of the ongoing pilot programme in Ghana, Kenya and Malawi. More than 2.3 million doses of the vaccine have been administered in these countries so far as part of the pilot. The following observations have been made since:

  • The vaccine offers 39% protection against malaria in children between the ages of five and 17 months.
  • The vaccine prevents approximately 4 in 10 (39%) cases of malaria and about 3 in 10 (29%) cases of severe malaria.
  • There is significant reductions in overall malaria admissions as well as malaria-induced anaemia.
  • The vaccine also reduced the need for blood transfusions, which are required to treat life-threatening malaria anaemia by 29%.

How does the vaccine work?

RTS,S works by introducing the immune system to a fragment of a protein that is naturally present on the surface of Plasmodium parasite when it enters the bloodstream through an infected mosquito. The protein in the vaccine stimulates the production of antibodies, and allows the body to mount a swift response to the parasite the next time it is encountered. The vaccine is designed to prevent the parasite from infecting the liver, where it can mature, multiply, re-enter the bloodstream, and infect red blood cells, which can lead to disease symptoms.

Why is developing a vaccine against malaria tough?

Malaria vaccines have been in development since the 1960s, with substantial progress only in the last decade.

  • Developing a vaccine against malaria parasite has been a difficult task, chiefly because of the parasite's complex lifecycle and genetical make-up. It has a multistage lifecycle occurring within two living beings, the vector mosquitoes and the vertebrate hosts (humans for instance). The survival and development of the parasite within the invertebrate and vertebrate hosts, in intracellular and extracellular environments, is made possible by more than 5,000 genes and their specialised proteins that help the parasite to invade and grow within multiple cell types and to evade host immune responses. The surface proteins and metabolic pathways keep changing during these different stages, that help the parasite to evade the immune clearance, while also creating problems for the development of drugs and vaccines.
  • The technical complexity of developing any vaccine against a parasite is another obstacle.
  • With no real market for a malaria vaccine in resource-rich countries like the U.S., pharmaceutical companies did not have a strong financial incentive to accelerate vaccine development. Hence there are a few malaria vaccine developers.

What are the symptoms and consequences of malaria?

Symptoms usually appear 10-15 days after the infective mosquito bite. According to the WHO, the first symptoms-fever, headache, and chills - may be mild and difficult to recognise as malaria. In no time, it can progress into severe illness and possible death.

Children may develop severe anaemia, respiratory distress or cerebral malaria, while adults can face multi-organ failure. Children under 5 years of age are the most vulnerable group affected by malaria.

Some facts about malaria

  • There are more than 400 species of Anopheles mosquito, of which around 30 are malaria vectors. All the important vector species bite between dusk and dawn.
  • Anopheles mosquitoes lay their eggs in water, usually shallow pools of fresh water, such as puddles, which are abundant during the rainy season in tropical countries. .
  • Vector control is the main way to prevent and reduce malaria transmission. The two WHO-recommended methods are - insecticide-treated mosquito nets and indoor residual spraying. Early diagnosis and treatment of malaria reduces disease and prevents deaths.
  • Exposure to malaria parasites does not confer lifelong protection.

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What does an allergic reaction to mosquito bites look like?

The more times a person has been bitten by mosquitoes, the more likely it is that they’ll become desensitized over time. That means adults typically have less serious reactions to mosquito bites than children do.

Common symptoms of mosquito bites include soft bumps on the skin that may become pink, red, and itchy. In most cases, redness and puffiness appears minutes after the mosquito punctures the skin. A firm, dark red bump often appears the next day, although these symptoms may occur up to 48 hours after the initial bite. According to the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, & Immunology (AAAAI), contact with a mosquito must be six seconds or longer to produce a reaction.

As your mosquito bite heals, the itching sensation will fade, and skin will gradually take on a less red or pink hue until it returns to its normal color. This usually takes about three to four days. Swelling will also go down after about a week.

A typical mosquito bite is less than a ½-inch across.

Credit : Healthline

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What is Nipah and how does it spread?

Kerala was on high alert after a 12-year-old boy died of the deadly Nipah virus in Kozhikode, early this month. The State ramped up efforts to stop a potential outbreak, as health officials began to trace contacts and isolate hundreds of people who came into contact with the boy.

The virus has an estimated fatality rate of between 40% and 75%, according to the World Health Organisation (WHO), making it deadlier than the coronavirus.

The state dealt with Nipah in 2018, when more than a dozen people died from the virus. This time around, the concern is compounded by the fact that the state has grabbed national headlines in recent weeks for seeing the highest number of daily COVID-19 cases across India.

Nipah is a rare viral infection. Infected patients show symptoms of fever and respiratory problems in the early stages that quickly advance to fatal encephalitis (inflammation of the brain). Fruit bats or flying foxes of the Pteropodidae family are the natural host of the Nipah virus.

The WHO has listed Nipah as among the 10 priority pathogens requiring urgent research. The organisation takes into consideration the virus' ability to trigger lethal outbreaks and the non-availability of drugs against it.

What is Nipah?

Nipah is a zoonotic disease (zoonotic is a disease transmitted to humans from animals), spread by bats, pigs and infected people, according to the WHO. Outbreaks have been reported in Southeast Asia since 1998, when the virus was first identified in Malaysia. The 1998-99 outbreak spread from pigs to humans in Malaysia. It caused severe respiratory illness in pigs and encephalitic disease in humans. It killed 100 people and affected thousands of pigs. The Nipah virus has a mortality rate of 75%, according to the WHO.

How does it spread?

Fruit bats, the natural host of the Nipah virus, show no signs of infection. However, the virus spreads through the bats saliva or excreta. Humans and animals such as pigs become infected through contact or ingestion of materials contaminated with saliva or urine of such bats. In 2004, in Bangladesh, humans became infected after consuming date palm sap that had been contaminated by infected fruit bats. Humans also get affected when they come in contact with infected pigs or when they consume the meat of the animal. Human-to-human transmission happens through body fluids, including nasal or respiratory droplets, urine, or blood. Such transmission was recorded in Siliguri, West Bengal, in 2001, and in the 2018 outbreak in Kerala. In Siliguri, 75% of cases occurred among hospital staff or visitors.

What are the symptoms?

Symptoms typically present one to two weeks after exposure to the virus. Initial symptoms are flu-like. They include fever, headache, respiratory problems and muscle pain. This may be followed by neurological signs such as disorientation and dizziness. In severe cases, the infection can cause encephalitis, which is the inflammation of the brain, and eventually death. Survivors can have long-term neurological issues such as a seizure disorder or personality changes, according to the WHO.

What can be done to diagnose it?

According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), during the early stages of the illness, laboratory testing can be conducted using real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) from throat and nasal swabs, cerebrospinal fluid, urine, and blood. Later in the course of illness and after recovery, testing for antibodies is conducted using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

What is the treatment?

There are no drugs or vaccine available against Nipah. The primary treatment is supportive care. Rest, hydration, and treatment of symptoms are advised. Individuals infected need to be hospitalised and isolated to avoid spread of disease to others. Identifying potential victims, testing them and treating them as early as possible are the way forward.

What should you do to protect yourself from Nipah?

  • Avoid exposure to animals such as bats and pigs.
  • Avoid eating fruits bitten by bats or that may have been contaminated by them.
  • Avoid contact with infected people.
  • Maintain personal hygiene. Practise handwashing regularly with soap and water.
  • Consume only well-cooked, home-made food.
  • Spread awareness among your friends and family members.

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What is endemicity?

Dr. Soumya Swaminathan, the chief scientist at the World Health Organization, recently said that India seems to be "entering some stage of endemicity". What does that mean?

According to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), in the endemic stage "the disease will remain dormant in a particular region or country. If the conditions become favourable it flares up and spreads among people." Common flu and malaria are examples of endemic stage diseases.

Endemicity simply means that the spread of the disease has started to slow down and there may not be widespread cases. The disease transmission continues and people still get infected, but not at a level that causes public health concern. However, localised peaks can be expected in some areas.

The complete endemic stage of any disease can be reached only when a large section of the population becomes immune to a disease either through vaccination or through antibodies acquired from a prior infection. India has a long way to go before reaching that stage. So, it is important to stay cautious and continue to wear masks, sanitise hands and avoid crowded places.

In February 2021, a study published in the Nature journal indicated that the SARS-CoV-2 virus is set to, become endemic and would continue to circulate in pockets of the global population. The Nature survey shows many scientists expect the virus that causes COVID-19 to pose less danger over time. This means, the virus is here to stay and we have to learn to live with it.

Did you know?

  • An epidemic is a disease that affects a large number of people within a community, population, or region.
  • A pandemic is an epidemic that's spread over multiple countries or continents.
  • An outbreak is a sudden increase in the number of endemic cases.

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What is dental visit?

Brushing your teeth several times a day and eating healthy foods are two ways to keep your teeth healthy and white. Another thing you can do is visit your dentist at least once a year.

At the dentist’s surgery, you sit in a special chair. It moves all different ways so the dentist can look into your mouth easily. First, the dentist puts a little round mirror on a handle into your mouth. This helps the dentist see the sides of your teeth. To feel for cavities, or holes, in your teeth, the dentist uses tiny tools called explorers.

Your dentist or the hygienist then cleans your gums and cleans and polishes your teeth to make them shine.

If your dentist finds a cavity in one of your teeth, it will need to be cleaned and filled. Before filling your tooth, your dentist may give you an injection in the gum near the tooth that has the cavity. The injection makes the area numb, so you cannot feel any pain while the dentist works on your tooth.

Remember, that the teeth you begin to get when you are only six years old have to last you the rest of your life. Take good care of them. Ask your parents for a new toothbrush, toothpaste, and dental floss after each checkup.

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What nutrients do children need to stay healthy?

What are your favourite foods? Maybe you like fish, hamburgers, or scrambled eggs. These foods all can be part of a healthy diet. But they are not enough. That’s because they are all proteins. Your body needs many different kinds of nutrients to stay healthy.

The best way to get all the nutrients your body needs is to eat many different kinds of food each day. When you eat a variety of foods, you can get the vitamins and minerals your body needs.

Eating a variety of foods means eating bread, rice, and other grains, especially whole grains.

It means eating nuts and beans for protein. It may also mean eating meats, such as beef, fish, and chicken.

Dairy products like milk and cheese are also important for a healthy diet. This food group is especially important for younger people, whose bones are still growing.

Finally, a wide variety of vegetables and fruit is very important for health. These foods contain vitamins and minerals that are critical to our well-being.

Foods that come in a package usually have labels that tell you what is in the food. These labels can help you understand what food groups are contained in a given item. That helps you to look for items with more fruit or vegetables and fewer addictive and preservatives, for example.

Food labels also tell you how many fats, carbohydrates, and other nutrients are in one serving of that food. This helps you to choose foods that are lower in fat and sugar and higher in nutritional value.

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Why is it important to eat well?

Like a car, your body needs fuel to keep it running. Your body’s fuel is food.

Food contains the things your body needs for energy and to stay healthy. These include proteins, fats, and carbohydrates.

Proteins provide energy and help make muscles, skin and other organs, and blood. They also help your body to heal itself. You can get protein from animal foods such as meat, fish, and milk products. You also can get protein from certain beans and nuts.

Fats provide a lot of energy. Your body needs some fats, but not too many. You can get fats when you eat meat, butter, certain oils, and some plant foods such as nuts, olives, and avocados.

Carbohydrates are the body’s main source of energy. Many foods contain carbohydrates, including potatoes, pasta, and grains.

Food also contains vitamins and minerals. There are many different vitamins, such as vitamins A, C, and D. They all help keep your body healthy. Many fruits and vegetables have vitamins. There also are many different minerals, including calcium and iron. Calcium is good for your bones and teeth. Iron is good for your blood.

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What is checkup?

Sometimes you go to the doctor when you are sick. Other times you go when you are not sick at all. This kind of visit is called a checkup.

Checkups are a good way for you and your doctor to see how well you are growing. It is also a good time for you to ask questions about your body and your health.

The nurse usually begins your checkup by measuring your height and weight. The nurse and the doctor keep track of how much you weigh and how tall you are at each visit. This is the best way for your doctor to see how well you are growing.

Next, the doctor listens through a stethoscope, to different sounds inside your body. The earpieces of the stethoscope fit in the doctor’s ears. The flat round part of the stethoscope is placed over the part of your body the doctor wants to hear.

The doctor holds the stethoscope on your chest and listen to the sound of your heart beating. The sound your heart makes is something like this: lub-dub, lub-dub, lub-dub. Then the doctor moves the stethoscope around on your chest and back to hear your breathing. The doctor will ask you to take a few deep breaths. If you are healthy, your lungs do not make much noise.

Then the doctor shines a light into your eyes. The light helps the doctor look at the inside of your eyes. You might have to read some letters on the chart. The doctor wants to be sure you can see well.

The doctor or nurse might ask you about the foods you eat, how much you sleep, and if you exercise. These are all important questions. To stay healthy, you need to eat healthy foods and get enough rest and exercise. Your doctor may give you some ideas about how to do these things.

Next, the doctor shines a light into your ears. The doctor wants to be sure that all your ear openings are clear. If they are not, you may not be able to hear well.

At certain checkups, your doctor will give you one or more immunization injections. These injections help keep you healthy. Some injections hurt. But a little bit of pain you feel may save you a lot of sickness later. Some medicine has to be in injections, because your body would digest that medicine if you swallowed it, the same way it digests food. Then the medicine would not be able to work as well to keep you healthy.

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What pain tells you?

Once in a while, some part of your body hurts. It may be your stomach or your head. You feel pain.

It is never fun to feel pain. Sometimes you might even cry. Pain is a warning. Pain usually happens because you are sick or you have hurt part of your body. When you feel pain, nerves send a signal to your brain. Your brain understands the signal. If you did not feel pain, you would not know when something was wrong inside.

When you feel pain, tell your parents or your teacher where it hurts. They know how to make the pain feel better. For example, if you have a headache, your mother might suggest sleep, an ice pack, or medicine to help take the pain away. Other times you may need to see your doctor. Your doctor might have to do medical tests to find out what is wrong and how to make you feel better.

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