My Science School

McMahon Line, frontier between Tibet and Assam in British India, negotiated between Tibet and Great Britain at the end of the Shimla Conference (October 1913–July 1914) and named for the chief British negotiator, Sir Henry McMahon. 

The Chinese have maintained this position to the present day and also have claimed that Chinese territory extends southward to the base of the Himalayan foothills. This frontier controversy with independent India led to the Sino-Indian hostilities of October–November 1962. In that conflict the Chinese forces occupied Indian Territory south of the McMahon Line but subsequently withdrew after a cease-fire had been achieved.

 

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Janus was the Roman god of doors, choices, beginnings and endings. The first month of the year is called January after him. He is usually depicted with two faces, one on each side of the head. He was one of the earliest gods of Rome, sometimes referred to as the “god of gods” or diuom deo.

Janus was a porter of heaven and a guardian god of gates and doors. He was the Roman God of Beginnings and his name was an obvious choice for the first month of the year.

The origins on Janus vary and unlike other Roman and Greek gods, Janus may have been a mortal who came from Thessaly and was welcomed into Latium by Camise. They got married, shared the kingdom and had many children together.

 

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Chandigarh is the shared capital city of both Punjab and Haryana, two farming states in northern India, many of the state government offices are located there. To replace Lahore, which became part of Pakistan during British Partition in 1947, the Indian Punjab required a new capital city. So Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of independent India, commissioned a new ‘planned’ city, designed by French architect and urban planner Le Corbusier in the 1950s. When India’s Punjab was separated in 1966, the city of Chandigarh — on the border of Punjab and Haryana — became a union territory to serve as capital of both states.

The Union Territory Chandigarh has limited area under Agriculture. The agricultural land is being gradually acquired for the expansion of Chandigarh City, and cultivated area has shrunk from 5,441 hectares in 1966 to 1,400 hectares in 2002-03. The main sources of irrigation are deep-bore tube-wells installed by the Administration and shallow tube-wells installed by individual farmers. The main crop of foodgrain is wheat and it is sown nearly in 700 hectares of land. 

 

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Brass, alloy of copper and zinc, of historical and enduring importance because of its hardness and workability. The earliest brass, called calamine brass, dates to Neolithic times; it was probably made by reduction of mixtures of zinc ores and copper ores. 

The ancient Romans used brass primarily in vessels, dress armour, jewelry, and brooches or clasps. Brass production declined after Rome withdrew from northern Europe but resumed during the Carolingian period. More malleable than bronze, brass was used to make ewers and basins, lamps, bowls, jugs, and numerous other household items.

Brass became a major material for the manufacture of fine instruments for astronomy, surveying, navigation, and other scientific pursuits. Brass was often forged, cast, chased, and decorated with engraving. 

 

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Humidity is the presence of water vapor in the atmosphere. The more water evaporates in a given area, the more water vapor rises into the air, and the higher the humidity of that area is. Hot places tend to be more humid than cool places because heat causes water to evaporate faster.

It might sound like water evaporation is a bad thing. Liquid water is useful, plus, you know, essential for all life. Water vapor doesn’t seem like it’s useful for much of anything–other than making you uncomfortable. Believe it or not, though, water evaporation and humidity serve a critical function of the natural world. We couldn’t do without it!

When liquid water evaporates into gaseous water vapor, it has completed one third of the all-important water cycle. The water cycle is nature’s way of distributing water to things that need it. If water didn’t evaporate, we wouldn’t have clouds, and it would never rain!

 

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Helium balloons work by the same law of buoyancy. In this case, the helium balloon that you hold by a string is floating in a "pool" of air (when you stand underwater at the bottom of a swimming pool, you are standing in a "pool of water" maybe 10 feet deep -- when you stand in an open field you are standing at the bottom of a "pool of air" that is many miles deep). The helium balloon displaces an amount of air (just like the empty bottle displaces an amount of water). As long as the helium plus the balloon is lighter than the air it displaces, the balloon will float in the air.

Why are helium and hydrogen so much lighter than air? It's because the hydrogen and helium atoms are lighter than a nitrogen atom. They have fewer electrons, protons and neutrons than nitrogen atoms do, and that makes them lighter (the approximate atomic weight of hydrogen is 1, helium is 4 and nitrogen is 14). Approximately the same number of atoms of each of these elements fills approximately the same amount of space. Therefore, the gases made of lighter atoms are lighter.

 

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Issuing an “orange” alert, the India Meteorological Department announced the arrival of the first tropical storm of the season, cyclone Ockhi over the districts in South Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Lakshadweep. The name Ockhi is coined by Bangladesh, which in Bengali means ‘eye’. According to Hurricane Research Division, tropical cyclones are named to provide ease of communication between forecasters and the general public regarding forecasts, watches, and warnings. Cyclones forming in the North Indian Ocean basin are named by the Indian Meteorological Department. The next cyclone will be named by India and it will be called ‘Sagar’.

Cyclone Vardah hit the Tamil Nadu coast on Monday afternoon, making landfall in Pulicat. The Met office said the cyclonic storm would take about six hours to completely cross on to land, with the landfall taking about two hours. The landfall is when the eye of the storm hits land. The eye of Cyclone Vardah is 15 km in diameter and it hit the coast at a wind speed of 130 to 150 kmph, bringing with it heavy rain. The name Vardah was given by Pakistan. The name of cyclones in the Indian Ocean Region are decided by the member countries, which are India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Thailand, Myanmar, Maldives and Oman. Cyclone Nada was named by Oman.

A cyclone named Fani is a massive cyclonic formation over the south of Bay of Bengal which is expected to make landfall in Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh. Do you know the low-pressure belt of cyclone forms in Sri Lanka and then from there it turns north-west towards the southern Indian states. According to Mahesh Palawat, who works at Skymet Weather, this cyclone may cause hot winds from northeast and are expected to blow over Mumbai and adjoining areas in Maharashtra. Also, dust storms may likely to occur in Rajasthan as an impact; heat wave in Madhya Pradesh could follow.

Cyclonic Storm Nilam was the deadliest tropical cyclone to directly affect South India since Cyclone Jal in 2010. Originating from an area of low pressure over the Bay of Bengal on October 28, 2012, the system began as a weak depression 550 km (340 mi) northeast of Trincomalee, Sri Lanka. Over the following few days, the depression gradually intensified into a deep depression, and subsequently a cyclonic storm by October 30. It made landfall near Mahabalipuram on October 31 as a strong cyclonic storm with peak winds of 85 km/h (50 mph). In Chennai's Marina Beach, strong winds pushed piles of sand ashore and seawater reached nearly a 100 m (330 ft) inland. Schools and colleges in the city remained closed for more than three days.

 

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The ANEMOI were the gods of the four winds--namely Boreas the North-Wind, Zephryos (Zephyrus) the West, Notos (Notus) the South, and Euros (Eurus) the East. Each of these was associated with a season--Boreas was the cold breath of winter, Zephyros the god of spring breezes, and Notos the god of summer rain-storms.

The Winds were portrayed as either man-shaped, winged gods who lived together in a cavern on Mount Haimos (Haemus) in Thrake (Thrace), or as horse-shaped divinities stabled by Aiolos (Aeolus) Hippotades, "the Reiner of Horses", on the island of Aiolia and set out to graze on the shores of the earth-encircling River Okeanos (Oceanus).

Early poets, such as Homer and Hesiod, drew a clear distinction between the four, relatively benign, seasonal Winds (Anemoi) and the destructive Storm-Winds (Anemoi Thuellai). The latter, spawned by the monster Typhoeus, were either housed in the caverns of Aiolos or guarded by the Hekatonkheires in the pits of Tartaros. Later authors blurred the distinction between the two.

 

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By far, the most abundant gas in the Earth's atmosphere is nitrogen, which accounts for about 78% of the mass of dry air. Oxygen is the next most abundant gas, present at levels of 20 to 21%. Although humid air seems like it contains a lot of water, the maximum amount of water vapor that air can hold is only about 4%. The amount of water vapor is highly variable. In hot, humid locations, it is the third most abundant gas. This makes it the most common greenhouse gas. In dry air, the third most abundant gas is argon, a monatomic noble gas. The abundance of carbon dioxide is variable. While it is an important greenhouse gas, it is only present an average of 0.04 percent, by mass.

It's important to know which gas is most abundant, what the other gases are in the Earth's atmosphere, and how the composition of air changes with altitude and over time for multiple reasons. The information helps us understand and predict the weather. The amount of water vapor in the air is particularly relevant to weather forecasting. The gas composition helps us understand the effects of natural and man-made chemicals released into the atmosphere. The make-up of the atmosphere is extremely important for climate, so changes in gases may help us predict broad climate change.

 

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Air may not seem like anything at all; in fact, we look right through it all the time, but during a windstorm, air really makes its presence known. Wind is able to lift roofs off buildings, blow down power lines and trees, and cause highway accidents as gusts push around cars and trucks.

Wind is moving air and is caused by differences in air pressure within our atmosphere. Air under high pressure moves toward areas of low pressure. The greater the difference in pressure, the faster the air flows.

Wind is described with direction and speed. The direction of the wind is expressed as the direction from which the wind is blowing. For example, easterly winds blow from east to west, while westerly winds blow from west to east. Winds have different levels of speed, such as “breeze” and “gale”, depending on how fast they blow. Wind speeds are based on the descriptions of winds in a scale called the Beaufort Scale, which divides wind speeds into 12 different categories, from less than 1 mph to more than 73 mph.

 

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Machinery has made it possible for the work of a dozen farm workers to be done twice as quickly by one worker. There are fewer people working on the land in developed countries than ever before. Machinery exacts a price from the environment as well, as hedges and ditches are removed to allow larger machines to work the enormous fields. Crops have been bred for the machine age, too. They need to ripen together, not over a period of time, so that machinery can harvest them in one operation.

Farm machinery, mechanical devices, including tractors and implements, used in farming to save labour. Farm machines include a great variety of devices with a wide range of complexity: from simple hand-held implements used since prehistoric times to the complex harvesters of modern mechanized agriculture.

The operations of farming for which machines are used are diverse. For crop production they include handling of residues from previous crops; primary and secondary tillage of the soil; fertilizer distribution and application; seeding, planting, and transplanting; cultivation; pest control; harvesting; transportation; storage; premarketing processing; drainage; irrigation and erosion control; and water conservation. Livestock production, which not so long ago depended primarily on the pitchfork and scoop shovel, now uses many complicated and highly sophisticated machines for handling water, feed, bedding, and manure, as well as for the many special operations involved in producing milk and eggs.

In the early 19th century, animals were the chief source of power in farming. Later in the century, steam power gained in importance. During World War gasoline- (petrol-) powered tractors became common, and diesel engines later became prevalent. In the developed countries, the number of farm workers has steadily declined in the 20th century, while farm production has increased because of the use of machinery.

Fishing in the open seas is expensive, dangerous and increasingly difficult as some fish stocks diminish. Fish farming involves using lakes, rivers and netted-off coastal areas to raise fish that can be harvested more easily. Freshwater fish and shellfish have been most success-fully farmed in this way. Many deep-sea fish require conditions that are impossible to recreate in managed waters.

Fish farming involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures such as fish ponds, usually for food. It is the principal form of aquaculture, while other methods may fall under mariculture. A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or supplement a species' natural numbers is generally referred to as a fish hatchery. Worldwide, the most important fish species produced in fish farming are carp, tilapia, salmon, and catfish.

Demand is increasing for fish and fish protein, which has resulted in widespread overfishing in wild fisheries. China provides 62% of the world's farmed fish. As of 2016, more than 50% of seafood was produced by aquaculture.

Farming carnivorous fish, such as salmon, does not always reduce pressure on wild fisheries. Carnivorous farmed fish are usually fed fishmeal and fish oil extracted from wild forage fish. The 2008 global returns for fish farming recorded by the totaled 33.8 million tons worth about $US 60 billion.

Livestock is farmed chiefly to supply foods such as meat, eggs and milk, but also for leather, fur and wool. Animal by-products may also include glue, gelatin and fertilizer.

The term “livestock” refers to any domesticated, land-living animal that is raised to provide resources like meat, milk, eggs, and feathers, or to provide services like transportation or cultivation assistance. Buffalo, cows, ducks, goats, and horses are just a few examples of animals that fall into this broad category.

Livestock are raised around the globe, both on small scales—generally for subsistence or local trade—and in massive industrial operations supplying international markets. The sheer mass of these animals is hard to fathom: The combined weight of cattle, chickens, and pigs exceeds the weight of all wild animals and humans combined.

22.8 billion Chickens

Chickens are far and away the most numerous type of livestock on the planet. There are about 135 chickens for every cow—and three for every human.

Wild chickens are believed to have originated in northern China, and were eventually domesticated in Southeast Asia more than 5,000 years ago. China remains the world's leading producer of chickens, claiming over 20 percent of the global chicken supply. However, the birds are now raised on every continent except Antarctica, where they are banned. Globally, chicken consumption is on the rise, outpacing the growth in consumption of other meats, like beef or pork. But growing demand for eggs has also contributed to chickens' dominance.

1.5 billion Cattle

Cattle are the second most common livestock animal. Their domestication is thought to have occurred roughly 10,500 years ago, in what is now considered the Middle East.

Today, these animals are especially prevalent in South America, where they're primarily raised for meat, and in India, where the animals are conversely valued for the dairy products they produce. Cows are revered in Hinduism, India's majority religion, and most Indian states have regulation prohibiting, or at least regulating, the slaughter of cattle.

1.2 billion Sheep

Sheep are believed to be one of the first domesticated animals, and are common throughout the Old World. They're especially prevalent in northeastern China, Central Asia, and North Africa, but are also raised intensively in New Zealand and Australia.

Although New Zealand is famous for having more resident sheep than people (with roughly six sheep for every person), it actually ranks third in terms of sheep per capita. Mongolia has a 10:1 ratio of sheep to humans, while the Falkland Islands, a British territory off the eastern coast of Argentina, boast more than 200 sheep per capita.

967 million pigs 

The sixth most common livestock animal is the humble pig, which is descended from the significantly more formidable wild boar. Pig production is localized to a few high-intensity areas in China, northern Europe, and the American Midwest. Nearly half of the world's pigs are raised in China alone.

Excluding areas where pork is not customarily consumed—including North Africa, the Middle East, and other predominately Muslim regions—pig production is on the rise.

From 1960 to 2010, the number of pigs on the planet grew by 250 percent, while the size of individual pigs nearly doubled. This growth is attributed to increased demand for animal protein in the regions where pigs are already consumed.

In Europe in the Middle Ages, large fields were often divided into strips, with individuals farming their strip as intensively as possible. Since little was under-stood about the nutrients that plants need and the use of fertilizers, the soil in these strips soon became exhausted, with poorer and poorer yields resulting. The Agricultural Revolution was a change in farming practice that took place gradually during the eighteenth century. The technique of resting ground for a year (leaving it fallow) and rotating crops, so that the same crop was not grown year after year on the same plot, was tested and found to improve harvests. A two-year rotation and later three- and four-year rotations came to be widely practiced.

The Agricultural Revolution was a major event in world history and had a profound effect on populations throughout Europe and other historical events.  For example, many historians consider the Agricultural Revolution to be a major cause of the Industrial Revolution, especially in terms of when and how it began in Britain.  For example, the Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the 18th century due in part to an increase in food production, which was the key outcome of the Agricultural Revolution.  As such, the Agricultural Revolution is considered to have begun in the 17th century and continued throughout the centuries that followed, alongside the Industrial Revolution.

In the centuries before the start of the Agricultural Revolution, European farmers practised a form of farming in which they planted the same crop in the same field every year.  This would cause them to have to not plant anything in the field every few years in order to avoid destroying the quality of the soil.  However, Charles Townshend, a British statesman, identified a way to improve farming practises and thus produce more food.  In the 1730s, he discovered that by growing different types of crops in the fields year after year, British farmers did not have to leave a field for a growing season.  For example, he argued that in one year the farmers should grow a cereal grain such as whet or barley and in a following year they should grow a vegetable crop such as turnips.  By doing so, a farmer could grow food in a field every year without diminishing the ability of the soil.  For his discovery, he became known as ‘Turnip Townshend’.  In general, this allowed British farmers to grow more food, which in turn helped lead to an increase in the population of British citizens.  The increased population was important to the beginning of the Industrial Revolution because it created a large workforce for the factories and mines that would be common during the time.

A key aspect of the Industrial Revolution was the invention of different types of machines, many of which were used in farming and agriculture.  For example, Jethro Tull is famous for his invention of the seed drill which had a profound effect on the Agricultural Revolution and, in turn, the Industrial Revolution.  Tull worked on his father’s farm in England and noticed that some of the traditional farming practices were very inefficient.  For example, he was particularly concerned with how seeds were drilled into the soil by hand, which was very slow and required a lot of labor on the part of farmers. As a result, Tull invented a seed drill with a rotating cylinder to drill the seeds into the soil. This made the planting process much quicker.  As well, the seed drill allowed crops to be planted in straight rows, which allowed the farmers to use less seeds while making weeding of the crops easier and more efficient.

Not all crops are grown for human or animal food. Cotton, flax and jute are grown to be made into fabric. Esparto grass may be cultivated for the manufacture of rope and paper. Tobacco is grown for smoking, while bamboo canes have hundreds of varied uses.

Other non-food crops, such as lavender, are grown for the perfume and cosmetics industries.

Castor: In 1960s, more than 20,000 acres were grown around Lubbock and processed in oil mills. Today there is no commercial production due to cheaper imports but there are some reports of 10 acres for planting seed. Castor produces a high quality oil used in industrial equipment, paints, aircraft and space lubricants, and other uses; less than 1% is fed to youth as a laxative. Seed contains ricinine which is highly toxic if eaten. Castor is now on the Homeland Security biohazard list after years of open production in the U.S.

Christmas trees: Planted on 1,500 acres, 90% are east of I-35 and on sandy soils; 70% are Virginia pine, 20% Afghan pine, and 5% Layland cypress. Seedlings planted, frequently drip irrigated to assure summer growth; requires good weed control to get bottom limb growth. Pruning and shaping essential for market-ability. Pines may be sprayed with a dye for more intense green coloration. Usually harvested after 5 years, with gross sales of $10,000 per harvested acre (average of $2,000 per planted acre if sequential plantings). No major disease problems but pine tip moth requires treatment every year and aphids in some years. Most tree farms are near metro centers for seasonal marketing and family experiences.

Flax: No flax is raised today but prior to 1970, flax was grown on 40,000 acres in South Texas. Winter-hardy varieties were short-strawed to maximize seed yields for production of linseed oil, an unsaturated oil used in paints. Flax, a winter annual, was cultured similar to small grains, seed was sold through a cooperative at Karnes City and shipped north. Some flax straw was baled for paper but the last unsold large supply mysteriously caught fire. Fiber varieties are typically taller but not raised in Texas.

Guayule: This North American crop was grown on 30,000 acres during World War II to supply natural rubber. This slow growing perennial does well in desert areas. Small experimental/observation plots with Firestone near Fort Stockton. In AZ, Yulex, Inc. has planted 500 acres in a quest to produce a natural latex for high-end medical and surgical products with non-allergenic properties. Yields average 1,000 pounds of guayule rubber per acre worth 40 cents per pound. In AZ, a pilot plant is designed to handle 750 tons of biomass in anticipation of producing natural latex; if successful, then plans to expand production to NM and TX.

Hemp/Marijuana: Originally an important cordage crop, raised for fiber in early days for burlap bags used for shipping. Now grown for seed and leaves for narcotic resin from Cannabis in small hidden plots of 0.1 to 0.5 acres in secluded areas along creek banks. Larger plots (5 acres or more) may be hidden if by tall crops such as forests or corn. While no firm statistics are available on the acreage producers, estimates range from 1,000 to 2,800 acres, with 80% of the production east of I-35 and remainder within 80 miles of metro centers, such as Austin. The real weeds are controlled by hand hoeing and selective herbicides but no pesticides are labeled. Diseases include Fusarium wilt and bacterial leaf diseases. In many states “medicinal hemp” sales exceed those of any other crop.

Kenaf: A new alterative crop was evaluated in LRGV without economic success. Some acres still maintained for seed production. Some production in Mississippi for newspaper fiber. Crop is desiccated by frost; chopped material stored in modules before processing. Few pests but potential concerns for white fly, powdery mildew, leaf spot, cotton root rot, and leaf deformation.

Lesquerella: A perennial shrub-like plant common in the desert, selected and cultivated for production of high quality industrial oil, similar to castor, with on-going research at Pecos, TX and AZ. No commercial production in Texas but 50 acres are planted for research in cooperation with AZ. Irrigated production usually yields 1,800 pounds of seed per acre; would require a price of 15 to 20 cents/pound to be profitable. Produces best if fall-planted, irrigated, and level ground for combine harvesting. Meal may be fed to livestock after oil is extracted.