My Science School

          The first plastic-type material was unveiled by Alexander Parkes at the Great International Exhibition in London in 1862. Parkes claimed that his new material could do anything that rubber was capable of, but at a much lower price. This material could be moulded into thousands of different shapes.

Cellophane

In 1913, Dr Jacques

Edwin Brandenberger invented a wipeable surface by adding a clear, flexible film to cloth. Brandenberger invented cellophane. Now it is widely used for packaging and is a fully flexible, waterproof wrap.

Bakelite telephone

In 1907, a New York chemist, Leo Bakeland, created a liquid resin which he named Bakelite. This resin could be moulded into any shape and it would not burn, boil or melt when it was set. Bakelite was the first thermosetting plastic which would always keep its shape and form.

V Kevlar

In a laboratory in 1965, two research scientists created a new fibre. They named it Kevlar. It was strong, light and flexible. Today it is used for sports equipment, bullet-proof vests and for ropes used on the expedition to Mars.

Nylon stockings

In 1939, nylon stockings were unveiled and were extremely popular with many women during the war years (1939-1945). Nylon replaced animal hair in toothbrushes, and silk in stockings.

Velcro

In 1957, George de Maestral was so impressed with the way that cocklebars — a type of vegetation — used thousands of tiny hooks to cling to anything, he invented a product, using nylon, that would replicate this natural phenomenon. He called it Velcro.

          Plastics have so many uses and many also have different names. These names include the brand names, trade names, manufacturers' names and the inventor's name. The unique characteristics of plastics mean that an enormous variety of products can be made, such as hard and flexible sheets, foams and fabrics as well as moulded objects. Plastics are an important part of everyday life.

          The world is full of plastics. Whether you realize it or not, practically everything you see and use on a daily basis is entirely or partly plastic material. Your television, computer, car, house, refrigerator, and many other essential products utilize plastic materials to make your life easier and more straightforward.  However, all plastics are not made alike. Manufacturers utilize a variety of different plastic materials and compounds that each possesses unique properties. 

1. Acrylic or Polymethyl Methacrylate (PMMA)

Well-known for its use in optical devices and products, acrylic is a transparent thermoplastic used as a lightweight, shatter-resistant alternative to glass. Acrylic is typically used in sheet form create products such as acrylic mirrors and acrylic plexiglass. The transparent plastic can be made colored and fluorescent, abrasion-resistant, bullet-resistant, UV-tolerant, non-glare, anti-static and many more. In addition to being than glass and polycarbonate sheeting acrylic is seventeen times more impact resistant than glass, easier to handle and process, and has endless applications.  

2. Polycarbonate (PC)

Tough, stable, and transparent, polycarbonate is an excellent engineering plastic that is as clear as glass and two hundred and fifty times stronger. Thirty times stronger than acrylic, clear polycarbonate sheets are also easily worked, molded, and thermo-formed or cold-formed. Although extremely strong and impact-resistant, polycarbonate plastic possesses inherent design flexibility. Unlike glass or acrylic, polycarbonate plastic sheets can be cut or cold-formed on site without pre-forming and fabrication. Polycarbonate plastic is in a wide variety of products including greenhouses, DVDs, sunglasses, police riot gear, and more.             

3. Polyethylene (PE)

The most common plastic on earth, polyethylene can be manufactured in varying densities. Each different density of polyethylene gives the final plastic unique physical properties. As a result, polyethylene is in a wide variety of products.  

• Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE)

This density of polyethylene is ductile and used to make products like shopping bags, plastic bags, clear food containers, disposable packaging, etc.  

• Medium-Density Polyethylene (MDPE)

Possessing more polymer chains and, thus, greater density, MDPE is typically in gas pipes, shrink film, carrier bags, screw closures, and more.

• High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE)

More rigid than both LDPE and MDPE, HDPE plastic sheeting is in products such as plastic bottles, piping for water and sewer, snowboards, boats, and folding chairs.    

• Ultra High Molecular Weight Polyethylene (UHMWPE)

UHMWPE is not much denser than HDPE. Compared to HDPE, this polyethylene plastic much more abrasion resistant due to the extreme length of its polymer chains. Possessing high density and low friction properties, UHMWPE is in military body armor, hydraulic seals and bearings, biomaterial for hip, knee, and spine implants, and artificial ice skating rinks. 

 

4. Polypropylene (PP)

This plastic material is a thermoplastic polymer and the world’s second-most widely produced synthetic plastic. Its widespread use and popularity are undoubted because polypropylene is one of the most flexible thermoplastics on the planet. Although PP is stronger than PE, it still retains flexibility. It will not crack under repeated stress. Durable, flexible, heat resistant, acid resistance, and cheap, polypropylene sheets are used to make laboratory equipment, automotive parts, medical devices, and food containers. Just to name a few.  

5. Polyethylene Terephthalate (PETE or PET)

The most common thermoplastic resin of the polyester family, PET is the fourth-most produced synthetic plastic. Polyethylene Terephthalate has excellent chemical resistance to organic materials and water and is easily recyclable. It is practically shatterproof and possesses an impressive high strength to weight ratio. This plastic material is in fibers for clothing, containers for foods and liquid, glass fiber for engineering resins, carbon nanotubes, and many other products that we use on a daily basis.  

6. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

The third-most produced synthetic plastic polymer, PVC can be manufactured to possess rigid or flexible properties. It is well-known for its ability to blend with other materials. For example, expanded PVC sheets are a foamed polyvinyl chloride material that is ideal products like kiosks, store displays, and exhibits. The rigid form of PVC is commonly in construction materials, doors, windows, bottles, non-food packaging, and more. With the addition of plasticizers such as phthalates, the softer and more flexible form of PVC is in plumbing products, electrical cable insulation, clothing, medical tubing, and other similar products.  

7. Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS)

Created by polymerizing styrene and acrylonitrile in the presence of polybutadiene, ABS is robust, flexible, glossy, highly processable, and impact resistant. It can be manufactured in a range of thicknesses from 200 microns to 5mm with a maximum width of 1600mm. With a relatively low manufacturing cost, ABS plastic sheeting is typically used in the automotive and refrigeration industries but is also in products such as boxes, gauges, protective headgear, luggage, and children’s toys.  

Plastics are derived from natural resources — oil, coal and natural gas. We are using oil so fast that the Earth's supplies may run out within 100 years. If they do, so will plastics. Scientists are investigating new ideas for making plastics by processing plants such as the sweet potato, bamboo and flax. .61 Using organic raw materials to make plastics would be kinder to the environment. Items such as a car would be easier to dispose of. If a car was made of organic raw materials most of the parts would naturally rot. Instead of scrapping it, you may just end up eating it!

Wildlife

Plastics can be extremely hazardous to wildlife. Each year, many birds become entangled in plastic drinks can holders. Once the plastic is wrapped around a bird's neck or feet, it is difficult to escape. This causes panic and, ultimately, death.

Pollution

 The Trabant emerged in the 19505 as one of the first cars to be made almost entirely out of plastic. While its benefits included value for money and a vehicle that would not easily rust, it also had its downfalls. The plastic used on this car would not breakdown naturally in the environment and so disposal was difficult. Unfortunately, the Trabant added to the mass waste in landfill sites.

Re-using

Large water containers like these can be re-used many times. This is far more considerate to the environment than disposing of numerous smaller bottles each time you have a drink. it's also a good idea to donate old computers, compact discs, video tapes, toys and household goods to charity shops for re-use.

Alternative sources

Plastics are made from natural resources that are not renewable. These resources are rapidly running out. Alternative sources such as soya beans and sugars can be processed into plastic products, saving our valuable non-renewable sources.

Picture Credit : Google

Plastics are used to make synthetic fabrics for clothes, curtains, sheets and carpets. Nylon, polyester and acrylic are all plastic fabrics. They are made from thermoplastics. You may wonder why it is necessary to make synthetic fabrics when there are natural ones, like cotton and wool. The answer is that natural fabrics from raw materials are expensive and in short supply.

Clothes made from synthetic fabrics have other advantages such as they do not crease much. However, they are not so comfortable to wear, or as warm, as natural fabrics. Synthetic fabrics are often mixed with natural ones to combine the advantages of both.

A Synthetic Fibre is a chain of small units of chemical substance joined together. Many such single units combine to form single unit called Polymer. Polymer means made of many units joined together.

 Types of Synthetic Fibre

       Rayon- Rayon is synthesized from wood pulp. Rayon resembles silk, so it is also known as artificial silk. Rayon can be dyed in different colours and is much cheaper than silk.

       Nylon- Nylon was first commercially synthesized fibre. Nylon is synthesized from coal, water and air. Nylon is very strong and its fabric is like silk.

       Polyester- Polyester, one of the most popular man-made fibres. It is made of repeating unit of a chemical called ester. It is widely used to make clothes.

       Acrylic- Acrylic is a man-made fibre. Acrylic is known as artificial wool or synthetic wool because it resembles wool. Acrylic is cheaper than natural wool and can be dyed in various colours. This makes acrylic is very popular among other fabrics.

Characteristics of Synthetic Fibres

       Synthetic fibres are cheaper than natural fibre.

       Synthetic fibres are stronger than natural fibre.

       Synthetic fibres are more durable than natural fibre.

       Synthetic fabrics are dried up in less time.

       Synthetic fibres are easy to maintain and wash.

Foamed plastic, synthetic resin converted into a sponge like mass with a closed-cell or open-cell structure, either of which may be flexible or rigid, used for a variety of products including cushioning materials, air filters, furniture, toys, thermal insulation, sponges, plastic boats, panels for buildings, and even lightweight beams. Under appropriate conditions almost any thermosetting or thermoplastic resin can be converted into foam. Plastics that are commonly foamed include vinyls, polystyrene, polyethylene, phenolics, silicones, cellulose acetate, and urethanes.

Foams with a closed-cell structure are produced by incorporating a blowing agent that decomposes at the fusion point of the plastic, releasing gas bubbles that are trapped during the gelling. Foams with an open-cell structure are produced by incorporating an inert gas into the resin under pressure and then releasing the mixture to the atmosphere and curing the resulting foam.

Bubbles and air can be put into plastics to turn them into foams and lightweight plastics. Sometimes the bubbles are big enough to see. In other cases they are microscopic. Plastic foams have a number of uses. They are excellent materials for making packaging like cartons for foods and delicate items which need protecting from knocks.

Rigid foam is mainly used as a heat insulator. It is injected into the spaces between the outer walls of houses to keep them warmer. Some plastic foam can be toxic due to the chemicals involved in making them. Now, many foams are made which are less toxic.

Did you know that paints and adhesives contain plastics? Paints are often made of three different chemicals. A 'pigment' provides the colour; a plastic holds the pigment in place and gives a shiny finish; and a 'solvent', usually white spirit, makes the paint runny and easy to use. When the paint dries, the solvent evaporates and only the pigment and plastic are left.

Pigments

The pigment is the color chemical in paint. It looks a certain color because it reflects some wavelengths of light and absorbs others. Traditionally, metal compounds (salts) are used to create different colors so, for example, titanium dioxide (bright white chemical often found in sand) is used to make white paint, iron oxide makes yellow, red, brown, or orange paint and chromium oxide makes paint that's green. Black comes from particles of carbon (think what your burned toast looks like and you're getting close to a color chemical known as “carbon black”). Different pigments are mixed together to make paint of any color you can imagine.

Binders

Pigments are typically solids, so you couldn't use them to paint by themselves. They'd be difficult to apply, they wouldn't spread evenly, they wouldn't stick to paper or a wall, and they'd wash straight off if they got wet. That's why paints also contain substances called binders. Their job is to glue the pigment particles to one another, but also to make them stick to the surface you're painting. Some binders are made from natural oils such as linseed oil, but most are now made from synthetic plastics. Visualize the binder as an invisible skin of plastic with a colorful pigment dispersed through it and you can see just how paint gives a layer of protection.

Solvents

Mix a pigment and a binder and you get a thick gloopy substance that's difficult to spread. Ever tried painting a wall with treacle? That's what using a pigment and a binder is like. It's the reason why paints have a third major chemical component called the solvent. As its name suggests, a solvent is something that dissolves something else. The solvent's job is to make the pigment and binder into a thinner and less viscous (more easily flowing) liquid that will spread evenly (that's why paint solvents are sometimes called thinners). Once the paint has spread out, the solvent evaporates into the air, leaving the paint evenly applied and dry beneath it. When you apply a really nasty paint and there's a smell lingering for days while it dries, that's the solvent evaporating into the air.

Strong glues like ‘superglue’ are made of thermosetting plastics called epoxy resins. They can stick metal, glass, china, and wood— in fact almost anything!

Laminates and perspex are both hard. Different plastics are needed to make flexible sheets. Carrier bags, light raincoats, shower curtains and food packaging are just some of the products made from plastic sheets.

Food and other articles are often ‘shrink wrapped’. The article is wrapped and sealed in a thin plastic film that has been heated, stretched and then cooled. Although the film stays stretched when it cools, if the wrapped article is passed through a hot tunnel, the plastic melts and shrinks back to its original size, wrapping the item very tightly.

Most Plastic bags are made from polyethylene - more commonly known as polythene, which is made from crude oil and natural gas, non-renewable resources.

The most common way to produce polythene bags is by blown film extrusion, also called the "tubular film process."

In Blown film production process - polythene melt is extruded through an annular slit die, usually vertically, to form a thin walled tube. Air is introduced via a hole in the centre of the die to blow up the tube like a balloon into the tube causing it to expand and form a bubble. Mounted on top of the die, a high-speed air ring blows onto the hot film to cool it. The tube of film then continues upwards, continually cooling, until it passes through nip rolls where the tube is flattened to create what is known as a ' lay-flat' tube of film. This lay-flat or collapsed tube is then taken back down the extrusion ' tower' via more rollers. The lay-flat film is then either kept as such or the edges of the lay-flat are slit off to produce two flat film sheets and wound up onto reels. If kept as lay-flat, the tube of film is made into bags by sealing across the width of film and cutting or perforating to make each bag. This is done either in line with the blown film process or at a later stage.

Plastics are not always moulded into shapes — we often need sheets of plastic. Perspex is a thermosetting plastic, ideal for making windows and roof lights. Perspex is as clear as glass and does not break easily. It is made by pouring liquid plastic between two sheets of sealed glass. When the glass sheets are clamped together and passed through a hot oven, the plastic sheet hardens to form perspex.

Table tops and other surfaces are sometimes protected with sheets called ‘laminates’. Melamine is a laminate. This thermosetting plastic forms a very strong, tough surface. Melamine is resistant to heat and does not stain easily.

Laminate sheets are made by bonding together two or more layers of materials. Laminate sheets from plastics are glued to wood to make the surface aesthetic. These sheets are manufactured by laminating different types of papers with formaldehyde. The core sheet consists of Kraff paper with phenol formaldehyde (PF) and below it, a barrier paper is provided. Above the Kraff paper, a tissue paper is impregnated with FF melamine formaldehyde (MF) resin is provided which gives protection and also enhances abrasion resistance. Then, these laminates are bonded to wooden surfaces with suitable glue and pressing for some time finishes the process.

Moulding is the process of manufacturing by shaping liquid or pliable material using a rigid frame called a mold or matrix.

When moulding plastics, a powder or liquid polymer such as polyethylene or polypropylene is placed into a hollow mold so the polymer can take its shape. Depending on the type of process used, various ranges of heat and pressure are used to create an end product.

Many different objects are made from plastic — thin sheets for wrapping food, long strips for curtain rails, hollow bottles and complicated toys. With such a huge range of items made of plastic it is not surprising that there are many different ways of moulding plastic.

The Types of Plastic Moulding

       1. Rotational Moulding

Rotational Moulding, also called rotomoulding, is a manufacturing process for producing large hollow parts and products by placing a powder or liquid resin into a metal mould and rotating it in an oven until the resin coats the inside of the mould. The constant rotation of the mould creates centrifugal force forming even-walled products. Once the mould cools, the hardened plastic is removed from the mould.

Very little material is wasted during the process, and excess material is often re-used, making it economical and environmentally friendly.

Common Uses for Rotational Moulding

Rotational moulding is commonly used to make large hollow plastic products like bulk containers, storage tanks, car parts, marine buoys, pet houses, recycling bins, road cones, kayak hulls, and playground slides.

        2. Injection Moulding

Injection moulding is the process of making custom plastic parts by injecting molten plastic material at high pressure into a metal mould. Just like other forms of plastic moulding, after the molten plastic is injected into the mold, the mould is cooled and opened to reveal a solid plastic part.

Commonuses for Injection Moulding

Injection moulding is commonly used for making very high volume custom plastic parts. Large injection moulding machines can mold car parts. Smaller machines can produce very precise plastic parts for surgical applications.

         3. Blow Moulding

Blow moulding is a method of making hollow, thin-walled, custom plastic parts. It is primarily used for making products with a uniform wall thickness and where the shape is important. The process is based upon the same principle as glass blowing.

Blow moulding machines heat up plastic and inject air blowing up the hot plastic like a balloon. The plastic is blown into a mould and as it expands, it presses against the walls of the mould taking its shape. After the plastic “balloon” fills the mould, it is cooled and hardened, and the part is ejected. The whole process takes less than two minutes so an average 12 hour day can produce around 1440 pieces.

Common Uses for Blow Moulding

Blow moulding processes generate, in most cases, bottles, plastic drums, and fuel tanks.

        4. Compression Moulding

Compression moulding is done exactly like the name suggests. A heated plastic material is placed into a heated mold and then pressed into a specific shape. Usually, the plastic comes in sheets, but can also be in bulk. Once the plastic is compressed into the right shape, the heating process ensures that the plastic retains maximum strength. The final steps in this process involve cooling, trimming, and then removing the plastic part from the mould.

Common Uses of Compression Moulding

The best use of compression moulding is the replacement of metal parts with plastic parts. It is mostly used for small parts and products in very high volume. The automotive industry uses compression moulding heavily because the final products are very strong and durable.

Picture Credit : Google

There are many different types of plastic; they can all be divided into two main groups. These are called ‘thermoplastics’ and ‘thermosetting plastics’. Thermoplastics include polypropylene, polystyrene, polyester, acrylics and nylons. These types of plastic melt when heated and become solid again as they cool. Thermosetting plastics do not behave in this way. Bakelite and melamine are both thermosetting plastics.

• When plastics are made they are either in the form of thick liquid or solid granules. This material is called ‘raw plastic’.

• The granules are tipped into a container and heated until they melt. They may contain a colouring dye.

• The liquid plastic is then poured into a mould. The shape inside the mould is exactly the same shape as the finished article.

• Until this point the thermoplastics and the thermosetting plastics are treated in the same way.

Thermoplastics are often used for clothing and packaging material, both of which can be recycled. Thermosetting plastics are resistant to high temperatures. For this reason they are often used to make saucepan handles and ashtrays.

The strong polymer links of the thermosetting plastic mean that it holds its shape even when heated. Plastics of this kind cannot be melted down and used again easily.

THERMOSETTING PLASTICS

•  When the thermosetting plastic is heated, links form between the polymers in the plastic. They become joined together into a permanent structure.

THERMOPLASTICS

• The thermoplastic, however, has different types of links and can be melted down and used again.

Two main processes are used to produce plastics - polymerization and polycondensation - and they both require specific catalysts. In a polymerization reactor, monomers such as ethylene and propylene are linked together to form long polymer chains. Each polymer has its own properties, structure and size depending on the various types of basic monomers used.

In a polymerization reactor, pressure and heat cause ethylene molecules, mixed with other chemicals, to link together. In ethylene the molecules form a colourless inflammable gas. When the same molecules are linked together in big chains called polymers, the plastic polyethylene or polythene is made — one of the world's most widely used plastics. Other chemical combinations can produce polymers of different lengths and structures.

Once the polymers have been formed, the hot liquid plastic is taken from the reactor, cooled, and cut into chips or pellets.

• Each molecule of ethylene is made up of two atoms of carbon and four of hydrogen.


• If another chemical, known as a ‘catalyst’, is added these molecules form a long chain. This is called ‘polymerization’.


• Polythene gets its name from ‘poly’ meaning ‘many’.

An oil refinery is an industrial plant that refines crude oil into petroleum products such as diesel, gasoline and heating oils. Oil refineries essentially serve as the second stage in the production process following the actual extraction of crude oil by rigs. The first step in the refining process is distillation, where crude oil is heated at extreme temperatures to separate the different hydrocarbons.

Oil refineries serve an important role in the production of transportation and other fuels. The crude oil components, once separated, can be sold to different industries for a broad range of purposes. Lubricants can be sold to industrial plants immediately after distillation, but other products require more refining before reaching the final user. Major refineries have the capacity to process hundreds of thousand barrels of crude oil daily.

In the industry, the refining process is commonly called the "downstream" sector, while raw crude oil production is known as the "upstream" sector. The term downstream is associated with the concept that oil is sent down the product value chain to an oil refinery to be processed into fuel. The downstream stage also includes the actual sale of petroleum products to other businesses, governments or private individuals.

• Crude oil is piped in and heated. As the different chemicals (or ‘fractions’) in the oil get hotter they start to boil and turn into gases (or ‘evaporate’).


• Each fraction boils at a different temperature. The ones with the lowest boiling points stay as gases for longest. They rise to the top of the column as they cool. The liquids with higher boiling points do not stay as gases for long, so they do not rise far.


• As each gas cools it turns back into a liquid (or ‘condenses’). The condensing liquids are collected at different levels in the column.


• Oil is full of useful chemicals. Did you know we get fuels, soaps, tar and some of the ingredients for drugs from the chemicals in oil?


• Certain fractions are mixed to give plastic making chemicals.

Most plastics come from chemicals in crude oil. However as the world’s a reserve of crude oil begin to run out; coal and gas are now being used more frequently. At a refinery, crude oil is separated into different fractions or chemicals. Most of these fractions are used for fuels.

In a further process at the refinery some of the remaining fractions are cracked or separated into various parts, including the gas ethylene, one of the main chemicals from which plastics can be made.

Plastic is a word that originally meant “pliable and easily shaped.” It only recently became a name for a category of materials called polymers. The word polymer means “of many parts,” and polymers are made of long chains of molecules. Polymers abound in nature. Cellulose, the material that makes up the cell walls of plants, is a very common natural polymer.

Over the last century and a half humans have learned how to make synthetic polymers, sometimes using natural substances like cellulose, but more often using the plentiful carbon atoms provided by petroleum and other fossil fuels. Synthetic polymers are made up of long chains of atoms, arranged in repeating units, often much longer than those found in nature. It is the length of these chains, and the patterns in which they are arrayed, that make polymers strong, lightweight, and flexible. In other words, it’s what makes them so plastic.

These properties make synthetic polymers exceptionally useful, and since we learned how to create and manipulate them, polymers have become an essential part of our lives. Plastics have saturated our world and changed the way that we live.

Plastics are everywhere! You are sitting on a plastic chair, leaning on a plastic-coated table or wearing plastic shoes. There are many different types of plastics. So what makes something a plastic? The first plastics were made more than 100 years ago from cellulose which is naturally found in plants.

Today plastics are made mostly from crude oil, a raw material that is fast running out. In the future, new raw materials must be found to make plastics, and there must be greater recycling of plastic waste.

Plastics is the term commonly used to describe a wide range of synthetic or semi synthetic materials that are used in a huge and growing range of applications. Everywhere you look, you will find plastics. We use plastic products to help make our lives cleaner, easier, safer and more enjoyable. We find plastics in the clothes we wear, the houses we live in, and the cars we travel in. The toys we play with, the televisions we watch, the computers we use and the DVDs we watch all contain plastics.

Plastics are organic materials, just like wood, paper or wool. The raw materials used to produce plastics are natural products such as cellulose, coal, natural gas, and salt. Plastics have become the modern material of choice because they make it possible to balance today’s needs with environmental concerns.

• The word plastic comes from the Greek Plastikos - meaning able to be shaped.


• They can be shaped into almost anything.


• Plastics are light and relatively cheap.


• They can be produced in different colours.


• Heat and electricity do not travel through plastics easily; they are good ‘insulators’.


• Unlike metals and wood, they do not rust or rot.

But plastics do have some disadvantages too.

• They are made from resources which will eventually run out, and they are difficult to recycle.


• Because they do not naturally rot (biodegrade) like wood, they are an eyesore and a hazard in the environment.


• They are not as strong as many metals and they melt at high temperatures, sometimes giving off poisonous fumes.