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          The teachings of Buddha had not been written down during his lifetime. So, six months after he died, or attained Nirvana, the first Great Buddhist Council was held at Rajgir, under the patronage of King Ajatashatru. Its objective was to preserve Buddha’s sayings, and to lay down monastic discipline or rules. In the centuries that followed, four Buddhist councils were held to discuss Buddha’s teachings. It was during the fourth council that the division of Buddhism into two sects was finally accepted.

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          Buddha is one of the greatest philosophers of India. He was a prince and his original name was Siddhartha. Siddhartha spent his boyhood at Kapilavastu and its vicinity.

          At the age of twenty-nine, Siddhartha suddenly abandoned his home, his wife and child to devote himself entirely too spiritual pursuits and yogic practices. Do you know why? One day, Siddhartha left the walled enclosure of the palace and roamed about in the town along with his servant, to see how the people were getting on. The sight of a weak old man, a sick man, a corpse and a monk finally induced Siddhartha to renounce the world.

          Siddhartha realized that worldly life with all its luxuries was worthless, and that the pleasure obtained from worldly things was fleeting. At the same time, he noticed that the monk looked serene and peaceful, and decided that he too, would find a way to get relief from the endless cycle of birth, suffering and death.

          Siddhartha left his palace and family, and wandered for many years in search of enlightenment. Finally, as he sat under a Peepul tree, he freed himself of all attachments and discovered the truth, and the secret of happiness. He became Buddha or ‘the Enlightened One’. According to Buddha, people can get free of the cycle of birth, suffering and death by leading a balanced life. He stressed the importance of being good, of learning not to care about worldly things, and of meditation. Buddha had many followers in his lifetime, and after his death, Buddhism, the religion he founded, spread throughout India and other parts of Asia.

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        It was Mahavira who gave Jainism the proper form of a religion. He is also considered as the 24th and last ‘Tirthankara’. In Jainism, ‘Tirthankara’ is a great soul who becomes the bridge to enlightenment.

        Mahavira was born in Kundagrama, near Vaishali in Bihar, in 599 BC.

        Mahavira was a prince, and his name was Vardhamana. He was a very brave child who once mounted a charging elephant! At the age of thirty, Mahavira renounced his kingdom, and family.

        It is believed that Mahavira did not consume even water, for two days. He pulled out his hair, and wore only a piece of cloth. Later, he gave half of that garment to a beggar. After a little over a year, he gave up clothes altogether. Mahavira’s teachings are full of universal compassion. He taught about the internal beauty and harmony of the soul. Mahavira preached that right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct together would lead one towards liberation.

        Mahavira himself is also called ‘Jina’, which means conqueror, for he was a spiritual conqueror.

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        The Nandas have a special place in Indian history as the first empire builders of India. They inherited the large kingdom of Magadha, and wished to extend it to even more distant frontiers. The first Nanda ruler was Mahapadma, and the last was Dhana Nanda. At the time of Dhana Nanda, the Nandas had an army consisting of 80,000 cavalry, 2,00,000 infantry, 8,000 armed chariots, and 6,000 war elephants!

          The Nandas were very wealthy, and they got their wealth through the taxes they collected. They also built canals and carried out irrigation projects. They were not popular rulers, but their powerful army was famous. In fact, many historians hold the view that Alexander the Great confined himself to the plains of Punjab for fear of the mighty Nandas!

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          Have you heard the story of how the Greeks won a battle against the kingdom of Troy by building a huge wooden horse? The horse was so big that Greek soldiers could hide inside it. The Greeks left the horse outside the gates of Troy, and pretended to leave. When the Trojans saw the horse, they took it inside their city, for it was so magnificent. At night, while the Trojans slept, the Greek soldiers came out of the horse and destroyed Troy. Did you know that a similar thing happened in India too? Pradyota, king of Avanti, one of the most prosperous states in the north, wanted to capture the king of Vatsa, Udayana. Therefore, he built a huge wooden elephant, hid his soldiers inside it, and left the elephant in the forest. Udayana was very fond of elephants, and when he heard that there was a huge elephant in the forest, he went in search of it. He was then captured by Pradyota’s soldiers, who emerged from the elephant and brought to Avanti. The story has a happy ending though. Pradyota’s daughter fell in love with Udayana, and helped him to escape. They married and she lived happily as his queen!

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          Bimbisara was a king of Magadha. His capital was at Rajgir. Bimbisara became king at the age of fifteen, and reigned for fifty-two years, until his kingdom was taken over by his son Ajatashatru. It is said that he had 500 wives, although we know about only four of them!

          Bimbisara’s expansion of his kingdom, especially his annexation of the kingdom of Anga to the east, is considered to have laid the foundation for the later expansion of the Mauryan Empire. He is also known for his cultural achievements, and was a great friend and protector of the Buddha. The king’s support greatly helped the growth of Buddhism in India.

          Legends tell us that Bimbisara’s son Ajatashatru, who imprisoned the king, is said to have starved him to death.

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          Prehistoric ‘Megalithic’ or large stone graves are found in great numbers in south India, especially in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. As you know, the pyramids are massive monuments built over a tomb that contained all the objects which would be useful for a dead person in his afterlife.

          Similarly, megaliths were large stone constructions built over a tomb. Rectangular chambers made of large stone slabs are very common. They also contained jewellery, axes, arrowheads and household articles for the afterlife. In this respect, they are similar to the pyramids of Egypt. There were also urn burials, in which the bones of the dead person were put in a pot or urn and then buried in a pit.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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       The ‘Mahajanapadas’ or great states, were the many new states that existed in the 6th century BC in the northern part of India. They came into being when people started settling in one place, in groups. They usually settled in a fertile area, and wanted to defend their land, crops and houses from other people. So, these states had their own armies, and were ruled by kings, or ruling councils.

       The Mahajanapadas were 16 in number. Anga, Kashi, Kosala, Chedi, Vatsa, Matsya, Surasena, Asmaka, Avanti, Gandhar and Magadha were ruled by kings or monarchs. The kings in these states had supreme authority.

       The Mahajanapadas of Vajji, Malla, Kuru, Panchal and Kamboj were republican states, and so were other smaller states like Lichhavi, Shakya, Koliya, Bhagga, and Moriya. These republican states had a ‘Ganaparishad’ or an assembly of senior and responsible citizens. It had the supreme authority in the state. All the administrative decisions were taken by the assembly. Of all these, Kosala, Vatsa, Avanti and Magadha were the most important ones.

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       There were many strange and elaborate rituals and sacrifices in Ancient India. In the later Vedic period, that is, between 1000 and 600 BC, kings performed the Ashvamedha Yagna, or horse sacrifice. It was one of the most important royal rituals of the Vedic religion. Only a king could conduct the Ashvamedha.

       Its purpose was to acquire power and glory, to establish sovereignty over neighbouring provinces, and to ensure general prosperity for a kingdom. A pure white horse was marked with a victory card and allowed to roam about freely. If anyone stopped the horse, the king had to go and defeat him in battle, and bring back the horse. The horse was then sacrificed along with many other animals.

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       There will be hardly anyone who has not heard of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata in India. These two great epics are studied in every nook and corner of the country. They were written in Sanskrit, and were then translated into various languages.

       The Ramayana was written by the Sage Valmiki. The Mahabharata was written by Veda Vyasa. The Mahabharata is much more than an epic; it is a magnificent piece of literature, which, for thousands of years, has been a part of India’s culture. A sweeping tale of the feud between two families, it is the mother of all epics. It spans hundreds of years and deals with a wide range of topics. In fact, its introduction says, “What is found here may be found elsewhere. What is not found here will not be found elsewhere.”

       The Ramayana was originally written in the Sanskrit language. Later on, it was translated into other languages in different versions. The main story of the Ramayana is about Lord Rama. Rama was born in a royal family and was supposed to be the king, but because of his step mother, he was exiled from his kingdom for fourteen years. During this period, his wife Sita was kidnapped by a demon called Ravana, who was the king of Lanka. Rama, with the help of his brother, Lakshman, and an army of monkeys under the leadership of Hanuman, rescued Sita. However, the Ramayana is about not only Lord Rama and his attempt to rescue his wife Sita, but also about devotion, loyalty, family roles and respect to elders. These great epics are the backbone of our great Indian tradition and culture. They have a very great influence on Indian heritage. They convey deep-rooted messages, which have had great impact on Indian society. The essence of these epics is Dharma, righteousness, good conduct, fearlessness, duty and dedication.

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       The Upanishads are sometimes called ‘Vedanta’, which means ‘the end of the Vedas.’ They are part of the Vedas, which primarily discuss meditation and philosophy, and are seen as religious instructions by most schools of Hinduism.

       Studying the Upanishads is like sitting down near a spiritual teacher in order to receive instruction. They are not concerned with gods, worship or sacrifice. Instead, they try to explain the world and the cycle of life and death. The Upanishads were written around 600 BC, and are about 200 in number.

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       In Sanskrit, the word ‘Veda’ means knowledge. The Vedas are the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism. The four main Vedas are the Rig Veda, the Sama Veda, the Yajur Veda and the Atharva Veda. The Rig Veda is a collection of inspired songs or hymns, and is the main source of information on the civilization of that time.

       The Rig Veda is considered the most precious gift that the Aryans have passed on to us. The Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda were compiled after the age of the Rig Veda, and are ascribed to the Vedic period. The Sama Veda is purely a collection of melodies. The hymns in the Sama Veda, used as musical notes, were almost completely drawn from the Rig Veda. Musical notes indicated how the verses should be chanted. In effect, it is a shortened and musical version of the Rig Veda.

       The Yajur Veda practically served as a guidebook for the priests. It contains hymns and rituals to be performed while chanting the verses. The Atharva Veda contains magic spells and chants to cure diseases, and ward off danger. If you have fever, or have been bitten by a snake, the Atharva Veda has a chant to cure it! According to Hinduism, the Vedas are of divine origin, and it is believed that all human knowledge is available in the Vedas in symbolic form.

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       Do you know that the caste system in India originated in the Aryan society? The Aryan society was divided into four varnas or castes, which were decided by the occupation one followed. The four varnas were the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and the Shudras. The word ‘varna’ means colour, and in those days, the four castes were supposed to wear different colours.

       The Brahmins wore white, the Kshatriyas wore yellow, the Vaishyas wore red, and the Shudras wore black. The Brahmins were teachers, priests and intellectuals. The Kshatriyas were warriors and administrators. The Vaishyas were farmers, merchants and business people, and the Shudras were artisans and workers. In the early days, a person was not born into a caste. However, with the passing of time, the caste system became more rigid. A person’s caste was decided by birth, and the Brahmins and Kshatriyas began to consider themselves superior to the other two castes. The system of untouchability was one of the evils that originated as a result of the caste system.

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       Vedas are not only religious texts but also socio-cultural and literary documents of ancient India. The Rig Veda, the oldest literary document of India, is an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns dedicated to the gods.

       The Rig Veda tells the story of Prajapati, the first god who created the world. His mouth, arms, thighs and feet turned into different groups of people. These groups became the different castes. The Rig Veda mentions many different gods, and it is the first written evidence of Hinduism. It refers to some rituals such as marriage and funeral rites, which differ little from those practised today.

       The Rig Veda is also considered the source of much Indian thought. It is believed among the world’s oldest religious texts in continued use.

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