My Science School

 

 

 

What were tournaments?

                       Fighting was a matter of honour for knights. When there was no obvious reason to fight, the knights had to invent one. Tournaments were contests in which knights fought each other with various weapons. They wore heavy armour that was supposed to prevent injury, but they were frequently maimed or killed.

                      Tournaments were popular events at which heavy bets were placed on favourite knights. They served as a useful form of training for real warfare.

 

 

What was the Domesday Book?

                     Once the Normans had secured their hold over their new territory, they wanted to know exactly what it was worth. In 1085, King William commissioned a great survey of his whole kingdom. It would list every town, village and farm, who owned what, and how much each holding was worth, so that taxes could be applied. All this information was written down in the Domesday Book. This book is still in existence today.

 

What is the Bayeux tapestry?

                        The Bayeux tapestry was made by the Normans to celebrate their victory over the English in 1066. It is a huge series of pictures depicting incidents during the conquest. The pictures are sewn on a strip of cloth 70 m in length. At one time, the tapestry was even longer, but a section of it is now missing.

How did the Norman invasion change the English language?

                      Up until the Norman invasion, people in England spoke in Old English. The Normans spoke a form of French, and they insisted on the use of French as the language of educated people. Most of the ruling classes spoke nothing else but French.

                      Over the years the languages spoken by the common people and the nobility became closer, until an entirely new language evolved. Modern English, which is descended from this mixture, still contains the recognizable remains of Saxon and French words. For example, the word ‘cow’ is descended from the Saxon word, while the word ‘beef’ is related to the French word.

 

 

Why did the Normans win the Battle of Hastings?

                    The Normans won the battle because the English armies were exhausted from previous fighting and were too far away to stop the invasion. After the death of Edward the Confessor, Harold Godwinsson was appointed king of England. However, Harald Hardrada of Norway also claimed the English crown and invaded northern England. He was defeated by the army of Harold Godwinsson near York.

                        Three days later the Normans invaded at Hastings in the south. The English army was forced to dash the length of England in order to fight the invaders. Exhausted when they arrived, they were soon defeated. King Harold was killed during the battle, and was succeeded by the Norman king William the First, or William the Conqueror.

Who were the Normans?

                      The Normans were the descendants of Vikings who settled in northern France and adopted French customs and the French language. Vikings had also settled in southern Italy and on the island of Sicily, where they established kingdoms. They soon adopted the Christian religion.

How did the Normans change British society?

                   The Normans introduced the feudal system to England. According to this system, the king owned all the land and others could hold land in exchange for providing services to the king. William the Conqueror appointed barons who were provided with estates taken from the original English earls. In return, the barons paid him taxes and supplied soldiers for his armies.

                             The barons, in turn, let their knights hold smaller sections of land, while the knights let part of this land to people called villeins. They were farmers who had to provide some of their produce to the local lord of the manor. In this way, the land and the whole of English society was broken into small, easily controlled units.

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What were the Dark Ages?

                      This term refers to the Middle Ages, from the 3rd to the 10th centuries, when most of the knowledge and influences of the Roman Empire were lost. The Western Roman Empire had declined in power and was continually being overrun by warring barbarians. The Byzantine Empire preserved much of the Roman learning but was effectively cut off from the rest of Europe. Learning survived in the West only in monasteries and religious institutions. The sceptical Romans had clearly distinguished myth from fact, but in the uneducated world of the Dark Ages myths and stories were plentiful. Life became far more primitive. By AD1000, the situation had begun to improve and the beginnings of a more sophisticated society could be seen.

 

 

Who were the Saxons?

                         The Saxons were Germanic people who invaded Britain about 1,500 years ago, after the departure of the Romans, who withdrew into continental Europe. The Saxons were followed by the Angles and the Jutes, who settled mainly in southeast England. The Angles gave their name to England, although they were not the largest group of invaders. Most of the invaders were farmers seeking new land. They abandoned the Roman style of farms and set up their own communities.

 

 

 

Was England one nation in Saxon times?

                  The Saxons and their fellow invaders divided Britain up into seven kingdoms. However, the peoples of these kingdoms were continually quarrelling and fighting over which local king could claim authority over the whole of England.

 

 

 

 

Did King Arthur really exist?

                       Although there is little real evidence for his existence, Arthur probably did live in the 6th century. He is thought to have been a Romano-British chieftain who fought several successful battles against the invading Saxons. Despite Arthur’s successes, the British were eventually defeated. Arthur remained a heroic figure of legend, and his story was recounted throughout Europe. The stories of the Holy Grail, the Round Table and the quests of Arthur’s knights are later additions to the myth.

 

 

 

What happened to the Celts?

                        As the invading Germanic people pushed north and west into England, the Romano-British descendants of the Celts retreated into Scotland, Wales and Ireland. However, many of the Celtic descendants intermarried with the invaders and were absorbed by them. The Britons held out for a while under a chieftain who may have been the legendary Arthur. Eventually they held only the mountain areas of Wales and Scotland, while many escaped to Ireland. Ireland preserved an entirely Celtic way of life as it had not been subjected to constant invasions and conquests.

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Who were the Vikings?

                   During the 8th century, the Viking people began to leave their homes in Scandinavia and explore Europe in search of treasure and places to settle. The first Vikings appeared in Britain in AD789. They came as raiders along the coast, and then settled in the northeast of Britain. They also invaded Ireland and Normandy. Other Vikings travelled into Russia and as far as Constantinople, trading and selling their services as mercenaries.

                 In Britain the Vikings were finally defeated by Alfred, the Saxon king of Wessex. He forced the invaders to sign a treaty agreeing to live only in the northeast of Britain. This treaty was known as the Danelaw. Britain was finally united as a single kingdom after AD954, when the last Viking king died.

 

How far did the Vikings travel?

                    At a time when sailors dared not venture far from the coasts, the Vikings boldly sailed out, far across the Atlantic in their small open long ships. Wherever Vikings landed, they mingled with local people, and they began to set up colonies in Iceland and Greenland, and sailed on to North America. Leif Ericsson named this country Vinland, and a colony was set up there in AD1003. Traces of Viking settlements have also been found in Maine, in the United States, and in Newfoundland in Canada. However, these colonies soon vanished, together with the colony in Greenland. Other Vikings travelled around the Mediterranean, and when in Byzantium they even traded for goods from China.

                             The Viking religion eventually died out after contact with Christian missionaries in the 12th century.

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What happened when Islam met the Roman Empire?

                     The Muslims began to spread the Islamic religion after Mohammed’s death in AD632. They moved northwards against the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire and its immediate neighbours.

                     Soon the Byzantines, already weakened by warfare with their neighbours, were driven out of Syria and Palestine, and the Arab armies drove them steadily back. The Muslims moved eastwards and captured Persia. They continued on into Afghanistan and India, which they reached at the beginning of the 8th century.

                      Other Muslim armies captured Egypt and the rest of North Africa. In AD711 they invaded Spain and pressed on into France. Here they were finally stopped by the Franks in a great battle at Poitiers, preventing the Muslim conquest of the rest of Europe.

 

 

What did Islam bring to Europe?

                         The Arabs joined with the Moors to conquer Spain during the 6th century. These Muslims had a more advanced culture than was found in medieval Europe, which was occupied by descendants of the barbarians who had destroyed the Roman Empire. The Moors in Spain introduced many discoveries in mathematics, medicine and science. They had preserved many of the writings of the ancient Greek, Roman and Middle Eastern civilizations that were captured during the Islamic victories over the Byzantines. In Spain, where Moors and Europeans lived together in an uneasy peace, these writings reached the European scholars. In addition to this learning, the Moors introduced concepts such as cleanliness and hygiene, which had been forgotten since Roman times.

 

 

What happened to the Byzantine Empire?

                         The Byzantine (Eastern) Empire had been under continual attack from barbarians for many years. The Islamic forces rapidly conquered most of the outlying areas of the empire, and by the year 1000 it had begun its final collapse. The Muslim Turks gradually drove the Byzantines out of the Middle East and entered Turkey, and by 1300 all that remained of the Byzantine Empire were Constantinople and parts of Greece. In 1453 the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople, ending the final remains of a great empire.

 

 

What happened when Islam met the Roman Empire?

                     The Muslims began to spread the Islamic religion after Mohammed’s death in AD632. They moved northwards against the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire and its immediate neighbours.

                     Soon the Byzantines, already weakened by warfare with their neighbours, were driven out of Syria and Palestine, and the Arab armies drove them steadily back. The Muslims moved eastwards and captured Persia. They continued on into Afghanistan and India, which they reached at the beginning of the 8th century.

                      Other Muslim armies captured Egypt and the rest of North Africa. In AD711 they invaded Spain and pressed on into France. Here they were finally stopped by the Franks in a great battle at Poitiers, preventing the Muslim conquest of the rest of Europe.

 

 

What did Islam bring to Europe?

                         The Arabs joined with the Moors to conquer Spain during the 6th century. These Muslims had a more advanced culture than was found in medieval Europe, which was occupied by descendants of the barbarians who had destroyed the Roman Empire. The Moors in Spain introduced many discoveries in mathematics, medicine and science. They had preserved many of the writings of the ancient Greek, Roman and Middle Eastern civilizations that were captured during the Islamic victories over the Byzantines. In Spain, where Moors and Europeans lived together in an uneasy peace, these writings reached the European scholars. In addition to this learning, the Moors introduced concepts such as cleanliness and hygiene, which had been forgotten since Roman times.

 

 

What happened to the Byzantine Empire?

                         The Byzantine (Eastern) Empire had been under continual attack from barbarians for many years. The Islamic forces rapidly conquered most of the outlying areas of the empire, and by the year 1000 it had begun its final collapse. The Muslim Turks gradually drove the Byzantines out of the Middle East and entered Turkey, and by 1300 all that remained of the Byzantine Empire were Constantinople and parts of Greece. In 1453 the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople, ending the final remains of a great empire.

 

 

 

 

What are the Arabian Nights?

                      This famous story is set in the court in Baghdad, where a king was said to have killed his wives, one after the other, the day after he married them. One of these wives, called Scheherazade, told the king such fascinating stories that he never killed her.

                      The setting for this story was the court of the caliph of the Abbasid Empire, which dominated the Islamic world from AD750 to 1258. The Abbasids traced their ancestry back to the uncle of the prophet Mohammed. Haroun al-Rashid was the most famous caliph. As well as being a great general and politician, Haroun al-Rashid encouraged the development of arts and learning in Baghdad.   

 

 

What is the Kaaba?

                      The Kaaba is the sacred shrine at the centre of Mecca. It is a cube-shaped building, and in its eastern corner is embedded the Black Stone. According to Islamic belief, this was given to Abraham by the archangel Gabriel. All Muslims must face the Kaaba when they pray, and it is the centre of the religious pilgrimage to Mecca. Pilgrims must move around it seven times while praying and reciting from the Koran, before finally touching or kissing the Black Stone.

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Who was Mohammed?

                      Mohammed was a prophet whose teachings form the basis of the Islamic religion. He was born in Mecca, in Saudi Arabia, around AD570. People throughout this region worshipped many gods, but Mohammed was influenced by the Christian and Jewish view of one god.

                     Mohammed had a vision in which the archangel Gabriel instructed him to proclaim that Allah was the one true god. When Mohammed started teaching in Mecca, people felt that he was threatening their religion. He fled to Medina, where he built the first mosque. Mohammed’s growing influence led the people of Mecca to attack Medina, but they were defeated. In AD630 Mohammed entered Mecca, destroyed the pagan idols and established the city as the centre of Islam.

 

 

 

What is the Koran?

                          The Koran is the holy book of the Islamic religion. It contains the words of Allah as revealed to Mohammed by the archangel Gabriel in a series of visions. The Koran is a series of verses describing the ways in which Muslims should conduct their lives. It specifies daily prayers, and emphasizes the need for brotherly love and charity between Muslims. The Koran describes Abraham, Moses and Jesus as prophets, and Mohammed as the final prophet before the Day of Judgment when all people will have to account to Allah for their former lives.

                         Muslims do not worship Mohammed, but show him the greatest respect. They believe that the Koran is the word of Allah and was not composed by Mohammed.

Who were the barbarians?

                      Many groups of nomadic barbarians attacked the Roman Empire, and they eventually destroyed the Western Empire. Most of these tribes migrated from the east. They were fierce warriors who were despised by the Romans.

                    Goths, Vandals, Huns and many other tribes attacked the Roman Empire from AD167 onwards. The Western Empire finally collapsed completely after Rome had been looted for the second time, in AD455. The barbarians killed the last Roman emperor in AD476. They set up several smaller kingdoms, based loosely on the Roman model. They failed to conquer the Eastern Empire, and for a short while Emperor Justinian pushed the barbarians back from much of their occupied territory.

 

Who was Attila the Hun?

                   Attila was the ruler of the Hun kingdom, in what is now Hungary. The Huns began to expand beyond this area, conquering surrounding countries until they controlled a region from the Rhine to the Caspian Sea, extending all the way to the Baltic. From AD435 to 439, Attila’s forces attacked barbarians throughout Europe. He forced the Eastern Roman Empire to pay him a fee in exchange for not attacking them.

                 Attila demanded to marry the sister of the emperor of the Western Empire, with half the empire as a dowry. When his request was refused, Attila invaded Gaul, was stopped and then invaded Italy. Eventually his conquest petered out as the Huns were gradually absorbed into the peoples they had conquered.

Who were the barbarians?

                      Many groups of nomadic barbarians attacked the Roman Empire, and they eventually destroyed the Western Empire. Most of these tribes migrated from the east. They were fierce warriors who were despised by the Romans.

                    Goths, Vandals, Huns and many other tribes attacked the Roman Empire from AD167 onwards. The Western Empire finally collapsed completely after Rome had been looted for the second time, in AD455. The barbarians killed the last Roman emperor in AD476. They set up several smaller kingdoms, based loosely on the Roman model. They failed to conquer the Eastern Empire, and for a short while Emperor Justinian pushed the barbarians back from much of their occupied territory.

 

Who was Attila the Hun?

                   Attila was the ruler of the Hun kingdom, in what is now Hungary. The Huns began to expand beyond this area, conquering surrounding countries until they controlled a region from the Rhine to the Caspian Sea, extending all the way to the Baltic. From AD435 to 439, Attila’s forces attacked barbarians throughout Europe. He forced the Eastern Roman Empire to pay him a fee in exchange for not attacking them.

                 Attila demanded to marry the sister of the emperor of the Western Empire, with half the empire as a dowry. When his request was refused, Attila invaded Gaul, was stopped and then invaded Italy. Eventually his conquest petered out as the Huns were gradually absorbed into the peoples they had conquered.

 

 

 

Why did the Roman Empire split in two?

                   Emperor Diocletian thought that the Empire was too big to be ruled by one person. In AD284 he split the empire in two, appointing Maximian to rule the western part.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Who was the Emperor Constantine?

                         Constantine was the first Roman emperor to adopt Christianity. His predecessor Diocletian had persecuted Christians, but after his conversion to Christianity in AD312 Constantine encouraged the new religion. He eventually made it the official religion of the Eastern Roman Empire.

                       By AD330 Constantine decided to make Byzantium the capital of the Eastern Empire, renaming it Constantinople. It is now known as Istanbul, in Turkey. The Eastern Empire grew in power as the Western Empire became weaker.

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Who was Jesus?

                        Jesus arrived in Israel when the anti-Roman feeling was at a peak, so His teachings were widely accepted. Jesus’s followers believed that He was the promised Messiah. However, other Jews thought that He was a blasphemer and encouraged the Romans to condemn Him. The Romans did not seem too concerned about Jesus, and there are no references to Him in the surviving official records of the time.

                       Death by crucifixion was a common fate for many people whom the Romans regarded as troublemakers. This form of punishment was often handed out to anyone who caused unrest, for example when Jesus preached to large crowds.

 

 

 

Why did the Romans persecute the Christians?

                    The teachings of Jesus were spread widely by His followers after His death. At first, the Christians were ignored by the Romans, especially as they did not join in the Jewish rebellion against Roman rule in AD66. However, the early Christians began to travel around the Roman Empire, and when they reached Rome they began to recruit new followers. The Roman authorities became concerned that this new religion would threaten the established order.

                        The Romans did not object to the new religion itself, but they did object to the fact that it denied the emperor’s divinity. The new religion appealed to the poor and to slaves, and its popularity was seen as a threat to Roman society.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

How were the Romans prepared for Christianity?

                         The Greeks had occupied Palestine for many years. After a brief period of independence, it was conquered by the Romans. The Jews bitterly resented Roman rule, and particularly disliked the heavy taxes that they imposed. In the middle of this general unrest and rebellion, prophets predicted the arrival of a Messiah who would lead the Jewish people to freedom.

 

 

 

 

 

What are the Dead Sea Scrolls?

                      The Dead Sea Scrolls are religious writings that were first discovered in 1947, hidden in caves near the Dead Sea. The dry atmosphere of the caves had the effect of preserving the scrolls. About 800 scrolls have been found, mostly in a place called Qumbran in Israel. They date from between 150BC and AD68, and they include all of the books of the Old Testament, or Hebrew Bible, except for Esther.

                      Scholars believe that the scrolls were concealed by members of a religious sect called the Essenes, who lived in the isolated community. They hid the scrolls to keep them safe during political unrest in the area, where they remained hidden for hundreds of years.  

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