My Science School

               There is a difference of opinion on this question. People have various explanations; some say that girls are brighter than boys while others have an opposite view. Scientists have yet to establish a logical scale by which it can be established that one sex is smarter than the other. Here are some facts which provide some sort of answer to this question.

               The average brain weight of males is slightly more than the average brain weight of females but the average body weight of men is more, therefore in both sexes the brain weight makes up about the same percentage of total weight. Difference in brain size is not of much importance. All human beings, male and female, have such a large number of nerve cells in their brains that a few more or less do not make any significant difference.

               Various tests have been conducted on a group of girls and boys and results have come almost the same. In tests, dealing with skills, the average score for girls is higher. In tests of technical and mechanical ability, boys have a higher average. But these figures are not very important because these may not be a good measure of people’s abilities. Also this is only an average data on certain tests, one sex may score more than the other but the results are almost same in other tests.

               Girls and boys are treated differently right from their childhood. Girls are usually given dolls to play with while boys get electrical and mechanical toys. Therefore, girls are expected to be less technical than boys. But now time is changing. More and more girls are competitively working with boys in similar fields. That is why their capabilities are becoming equal. This implies that it is the kind of upbringing and training that decides the ability rather than gender considerations.

               At present we have no scientific evidence by which it can be proved that which sex is brighter. Neither sex has a monopoly on any special mental ability. Individuals of both sexes deserve every possible chance to develop their abilities and to become whatever they want to be. It would be incorrect to judge brightness on gender grounds.

 

               The appendix is a part of the intestine in the human beings. Its full name is the vermiform appendix. The word vermiform means worm-shaped. The appendix is found on the lower right side of the abdomen. It is found at a place where our small intestine joins the large intestine. This is called caecum. It is in the form of a tube whose one end is closed and the other opens into the caecum.

               In human beings the appendix is usually three to four inches or eight to ten cm. long and less than half an inch wide. It was probably a necessary part of the digestive system thousands of years ago and perhaps helped in cellulose digestion. The organ is believed to be gradually disappearing in human beings and is often referred to as a vestigial organ — those organs or parts now disappearing for being in disuse but ancestrally well developed.

               The appendix has muscular valves, ordinarily capable of expelling the mucus secretions of the appendiceal valves into the caecum. If anything blocks the opening, the continued secretion and the bacteria within the organ build up pressure. It may also be invaded by germs. This causes the whole area to become sore and swollen. The painful inflammation of the appendix is medically termed as appendicitis. A person experiencing an attack of appendicitis may feel abdominal pain in the right lower region of the abdomen. He may feel nausea or have diarrhoea. There can also be slight fever unless the appendix bursts. Recurrent mild attacks of appendicities in children are often diagnosed as ‘bilious attack or disorder of biles’. The only safe plan is to watch such cases very carefully and immediate attention should be given for proper treatments.

               In acute cases, surgical operation is needed. It is operated on after giving general anaesthesia. The appendicitis is caused usually when bits of undigested food stick in the opening to the appendix and block it. This gives bacteria a warm, closed place where they can grow and multiply and produce a painful swelling. 

               We are all familiar with the itching sensation and scratching gives us some relief. But what causes it and why scratching gives a soothing sensation?

               When the pain nerves in our skin are stimulated a little, we do not feel pain but feel a tickling sensation in our skin, which causes a desire to scratch. A mosquito bite irritates the pain nerves of our skin just enough to cause an itch. Dryness of the skin or wounds on the body surface and various allergies can also cause itching. Similarly many other diseases like kidney disorders and cancer can cause itching.

               The best way to deal with mosquito —bite itch is to scratch lightly in a circle all around, but not directly on the place of bite.

               Scratching the skin at one spot may help for a while but can produce an itch at some other places of the body. According to some doctors, the reason behind it is that the pain nerves in the area around an itch become more sensitive. Scratching stimulates these nerves just enough to start a new itch. So the feeling spreads.

               Now the question arises, why is the skin the only part of our body that can feel an itch? This is a big mystery. We have pain nerves inside our body also but we never feel an itch in the inner organs such as liver or heart. The medical scientists are still quite ignorant about the reasons.

 

               The police dogs can identify the criminals on the basis of smell of their bodies. This clearly proves that each of us has a special kind of body smell. On the basis of certain experiments it has been established that even the twins have slightly different smell. Dogs with some special training can even identify between the twins Do you know why everybody has a particular smell?

               The body smell depends upto some extent on an oily liquid secreted by sweat glands in the body. But the scent is mainly the product of bacteria that feed on sweat. When a child is born, he picks up many bacteria from the mother, and those who touch him. Their number in cases as the child comes into further contact with others. Within several days of the birth many kinds of bacteria settle down permanently on our skin all through our lives. The types of bacteria may differ from person to person and they produce different types of odour in different persons. That is why, different persons have different smell.

          We all have heard of fishes producing electric currents but it is surprising to learn that our body itself generates electric current. Not only electricity but even magnetic impulses emanate from our body organs. The electric current generated in our body helps in controlling and working of the nerves and muscles of our body. In fact, electricity is consumed in some form in all the activities and functions of our body.

          The power of muscles in itself is a product of attraction and repulsion of electric charges. The functions of the brain are electrical in nature. All messages received and sent by the brain are transmitted by tissues in the form of electric impulses. For performing some special kind of functions many electric signals are produced. These electric signals are produced by electro-chemical actions in special kind of cells.

          Many physical disorders can be detected by measuring these electric signals. For example, any irregularities in the functioning of the heart can be detected by the electric signals of the heart. In the same way, electric signals generated by muscles, brain, eyes etc can be recorded and on its basis the malfunctioning of any of these organs can be known.

          Electromyogram is used for recording electric signals of muscles. For recording electric signals for heart and brain, the electrocardiogram and electro-encephalogram are used respectively. For magnetic signals of the heart, electro-magneto cardiogram is used.

          Specialists in different diseases can find out various physical ailments by analyzing these electric signals. Proper treatment can be given after diagnosing the disease. Information obtained from these electric signals is very important for the doctors in suggesting treatment for various diseases.

 

               The pancreas is an important organ found in the bodies of human beings and all animals with backbones. It lies crossways behind the stomach. This organ resembles a flask lying on its side. The human pancreas is a pinkish yellow gland about 12 to 15 cm long, 3.8 cm. wide and 2.5 cm. thick. It is joined to the small intestine behind the stomach. Do you know the function of the pancreas?

               The pancreas produces a strong digestive juice in the intestines that breaks down food particles for easy digest. It also produces the hormones, insulin and glycogen. It produces 1200 to 1500 ml. of pancreatic juice every day. This juice flows into the small intestine or duodenum. It contains enzymes and salts which help in digesting proteins, starches, sugars and fats. As the food enters the mouth, the taste buds send impulses to the brain. It stimulates the pancreas via vagus nerve to secrete its juice. The pancreatic juice is rich in sodium bicarbonate, which helps in neutralising the acid. 

               Pancreatic juice has five main enzymes. Three of these help in the digestion of proteins; the other two — amylase and lipase — digest carbohydrates and fats respectively. The main protein digesting enzyme is called trypsin.

               Apart from the digestive function the pancreas also produces the essential hormones insulin and glucagon from a group of cells known as islets of Langerhans. Glucagon converts glycogen to glucose by which the sugar level in the blood is maintained. Insulin decreases the blood sugar level when it is increased. Insulin is produced in the 'tail' part of the organ and deficiency of this hormone causes diseases like diabetes. In such cases diet of the patient should be rich in protein, low in fat and plenty of pure water be taken. This hormone converts glucose to glycogen inside the liver. These two hormones working together control the energy requirements of the body. 

               There are over 600 muscles arranged around the frame of a human skeleton and inside the body. These muscles are responsible for various movements of the body. When these muscles are active, as happens in the case of muscle contraction and stimulation, they produce electric impulses. Electromyogram or EMG is a record of such impulses.

               Electromyogram provides valuable information regarding the disorders of the muscles. The electric signals from the muscles are obtained during voluntary contraction. For this purpose, an instrument is used whose electrodes are connected to the particular muscle. These electrodes carry the electrical impulses through the wires to a pen recorder which marks these in the form of a graph on a paper.

               Now the question arises, how do muscles produce electric impulses? A muscle is made up of many motor units. A motor unit consists of a single branching neuron from the spinal cord to the muscle fibres. This gives rise to a potential difference. In fact, this potential difference is recorded in the form of electromyogram.

               Single muscle cells are usually not monitored in an EMG examination because it is difficult to isolate a single fibre. Instead, EMG electrodes record the electric impulses from several fibres. EMG gives valuable diagnostic information about muscles. With the help of an EMG the contraction of a muscle can be known.

               EMG can also be recorded with electric stimulation. A typical stimulating pulse may have amplitude of 100V and lasts from 0.1 to 0.5 m-secs. With the help of an EMG we can study the reflex responses of the muscles and can know their working level. For instance our heart muscles go on pumping blood. If there is any disorder in pumping system, the device can identify heart muscles which may not be in its normal state. The major muscles in humans can be stimulated at a rate between 5 and 15 hertz. Normal nerves and muscles show some changes during prolonged restimulation. On the basis of EMG we can gather information about any malfunctioning of the muscles. 

            Insemination, which means the injecting of sperms into the female reproductive organ, takes place during the mating of a male and a female. However, in recent years different methods of artificial insemination have been developed by which not only females in the animals but also the women's ova can be fertilized by such artificial methods. Do you know how the artificial insemination is done?

            Artificial insemination is done by taking sperm of a prized animal and injecting it into the reproductive organs of a female animal. This method is used to improve the breed of animals like cows. The method is that the sperm of a prized ox is taken and introduced into the reproductive organ of a cow. This fertilizes the cow. It helps impregnate far more cows in less time than possible with natural insemination. Thus this process of artificial insemination is very useful in increasing the number of livestock of a better breed.

            Artificial insemination is being used for conception in women also. With this method of artificial insemination a woman can conceive if the husband is sterile or cannot produce sufficient amount of semen. So, semen is obtained from another person and injected with a syringe at the mouth of the womb of the woman. There are however, various methods by which babies can be conceived outside of the mother's body and can be artificially carried out in a laboratory. These children are usually known as ‘test-tube’ babies and the technique is called I.V.P. (In Vitro Fertilization). The world’s first test-tube baby was born on 25 July 1978 in Oldham General Hospital, USA. 

               Ringworm is a common skin disease. It is caused by fungi. It is so called because the fungus often produces a ring-shaped infection. The fungi of this disease live and multiply on the surface of the skin and feed on keratin, the horny protein constituting the major part of the outer layer of the skin and of the hair and the nail. The lesions are usually round or ring shaped and can be either dry or moist. They might cause several patches on the skin.

               Ringworm is also called tinea. This word indicates the part of the skin affected by it, e.g. ringworm of the scalp, beard, and nails are called as Tinea capitis, Tinea barbane and Tinea unguium respectively. Similarly ringworms of the body, groin, hands and feet are referred to as Tinea magnum and Tinea pedis. Tinea pedis is also referred to as athlete's foot. This ringworm can be dry or moist. Watery ringworm may be found between the toes and fingers of the foot. The dry type may involve the sole and sides of the foot. The scalp ringworm is very contagious and may cause an epidemic among school children.

               Ringworms are usually controlled by various fungicides sold as medicines by pharmacists. Fungicide is a substance that kills fungi and can be used for the treatment of ringworm. The infected area should be kept dry and powdered. Limited exposure to ultraviolet light may also be helpful. 

               We have two sets of teeth during our life time. The initial 20 milk teeth are replaced by 32 permanent teeth. These are bony cells that grow out of the gum in the mouth. Each tooth consists of a crown and one to three roots depending on its type and position. The crown is that part which appears above the surface of the gum, while the root is contained in the socket in the jaws. The bulk of the tooth consists of a hard yellow material known as dentine. The exposed surfaces of the crown are covered by the dense white enamel which is the hardest tissue in our body. Its molecules are Iived up in patterns called crystals. The sort middle part of a tooth is called the pulp and is filled with nerves and blood vessels.

               Fluoride is a chemical substance that can make enamel even stronger. If we brush our teeth with fluoride tooth paste, molecules of fluoride arrange themselves in the crystalline pattern, replacing other molecules. Since the fluoride molecules fit more tightly than the others, they make the enamel harder to break. The harder the enamel, the fewer the cavities. In many cities today fluoride is added to the water supply. Fluoride in the crystals strengthens the teeth by making the enamel hard.

               Fluorides are compounds of fluorine and another element or group of elements. Most of the fluorides are salts. They are produced by the reaction of hydrofluoric acid with a metal oxide.

 

               Some diseases pass on from one generation to the next, i.e. from parents to their children. Heredity describes how parents pass on their characteristics to their children. Sometimes it is a tendency towards a certain illness. These diseases are known as hereditary or genetic diseases because they are traceable to the genes of the parents. Do you know which diseases are hereditary diseases?

               As we know that the sex of a child depends on the respective number of chromosomes X and Y obtained from the parents. There are some other genes connected to sex, called the sex-linked genes. The chromosomes in the cells of a new born baby are a mixture of its parent’s genes.

               Colour blindness is one of the sex-linked diseases. The incidence of this disease is more in males than in females.

               Haemophilia, a rare disease in which blood does not clot or clot very slowly, is another sex-linked disease. This is due to X-chromosomes which are carried by females only. This disease is inherited by male children only from their mother.

               Albinism is another inherited disease in which a person lacks in melanin, a dark pigment which gives colour to the skin, hair and eyes. The persons suffering from this disease have pinkish skin, greyish hair and are very sensitive to light.

               The chances of a child to suffer from diabetes and cancer are more if the parents suffer from these diseases. Sickle cell anaemia, a physical disorder in which blood cells are formed irregularly like a sickle in shape, is also inherited from parents. This disease produces abnormal haemoglobin with sickle blood cells.

               There are some diseases which are produced due to some disorder in chromosomes. Some children have small flat face, small fingers, weak muscles and squint eyes. Their lifespan is short, just 20 to 30 years and mental development is not more than that of a four years old child. This is due to the presence of 47 chromosomes instead of 46, and their abnormal combination. In medical terminology this disease is called Monogolism or Down’s syndrome after the name of the doctor John Down, who studied it. 

              Our skin is one of the largest functional organs of the body. In an adult it counts about seven per cent of the total body weight. It protects the internal parts of the body from the harmful effects of the outer environment like injury or attack by hostile organisms. A piece of skin — size of a 5 paise coin — has over 3 million cells, 1 metre of blood vessels, and 80 sweat glands. The inner layer of our skin is called the dermis, where exist our nerve-endings. The outer Layer is called epidermis. Although this layer contains tile-like dead cells, they constantly get water from the living cells below. When water reaches the top layer, it evaporates. It also contains a tough protein called “Kerratin”. The epidermis also contains cells which produce the “Melanin” responsible for skin pigmentation. It provides protection against sun’s ultra-violet rays.

              Sebaceous glands present in the surface of the skin secrets an oily liquid called sebum which continues to flow along the ducts and comes to the outer skin. It is due to this secretion that our skin is soft and flexible as this liquid saves our skin from being dried out. It also protects the skin from physical damage. The sebum also provides the first line of defence against invasion by bacteria as it is slightly antiseptic. The secretion of sebum is particularly important in tropical areas where the surface layer is constantly drying out on account of the warm climate. So without this greasy protective lubricant, the skin would not be able to withstand the daily wear and tear and lose its natural moisture. Sweat and blood vessels in the skin help to keep the body at the right temperature.

              In cold weather air becomes dry. When this dry air comes in contact with the skin it evaporates the water fast, and as a result outer layer begins to develop cracks and flakes. Skin also contains nerve cells that send message of heat, cold and pain to the brain. Since our lips do not have oil glands, they get chapped or cleaved first.

              Creams and ointments soothe chapped skin. If a mixture of water and oil is applied on the skin it helps the skin from being dried out. The water is absorbed by the skin and oil coats it making it moist. If one’s hands get chapped, they should be soaked in the warm water and then massaged with an ointment by applying it on the skin. By this method we can protect our skin in cold weather. 

               When we see an object the light falls on the light-sensitive cells that form the retina. These send nerve impulses to the brain which ‘sees’ the picture or an image that is formed at the back of the eye. This is how we see the object.

               The lens of our eye is very soft and its shape is altered by the ciliary muscle. These muscles control focussing in the eye and this alters the shape of the lens. Some people cannot focus on distant objects and some other on nearby things. In such cases the object appears blurred and we say that eye has a defect of sight.

               For testing the eyes, the eye specialist makes use of a chart in which different letters in different sizes are written. Below these is written 6/36, 6/24, 6/18, 6/12, 6/ 9, 6/6 and 6/5 etc. Specialists ask the person under test to read the different letters or numbers on the chart and upto the row the patient reads the chart is marked as his eyesight. All these letters have a common digit of six. This indicates that this chart should be placed at a distance of 6 m or 20ft from the eye. If a person’s eyesight is 6/12, it shows that this man can read this letter from a distance of 6m while a man of normal sight can read it from a distance of 12 metres.

               In this way the eye specialist tests the sight and prescribes a number. For example if a person has a number -2D, it indicates that he cannot see the distant objects clearly and he needs a concave lens for his spectacles that brings light rays together. Similarly if the number is in plus sign, he cannot see nearby objects clearly and needs a convex lens that diverge light rays before they can enter the eye. The letter ‘D’ stands for dioptre which is the unit of power of a lens. Two dioptre mean a lens of 50 cm focal length.

               If a person is not able to see clearly both the near and distant objects, he needs spectacles of compound lenses. If someone delays the use of spectacles his sight may further deteriorate. In modern techniques, computers are used to ascertain the unit of power needed for individual patients.

 

            Influenza is a common ailment caused by different kinds of virus and spreads very rapidly from one person to another. When a large number of people in the same area are affected it is called an epidemic of influenza. Do you know what causes influenza?

            Influenza is caused by three types of viruses, categorized as groups A, B and C. These groups also have some subgroups. Influenza of ‘A’ group virus tends to reappear in cycles of two to three years and influenza of ‘B’ in cycles of four to five years.

            Influenza may affect individuals of all ages and is generally more frequent during the colder months of the year. The infection is transmitted from one person to another through coughing and sneezing. The influenza virus settles in the lining of nose and throat. It causes sneezing, coughing and sore throat. It also causes fever, sudden chills and headache. Often the patient has pain in the body. People with influenza feel weak, their muscles and joints ache and they have a dry painful cough. In most cases, influenza lasts from three days to a week. Mortality is usually low and those who die die from other complications such as pneumonia etc.

            Some kinds of influenza are very mild but others even fatal. The epidemic ‘Spanish flu’ after World War I killed more people than the numbers of people killed in the war itself. Fortunately there has not been a recurrence of such epidemic.

            There is no specific treatment for influenza. If subsides on its own after a few days. However, drugs such as aspirin and codeine sulphate are used to relieve discomfort and control the fever. People who are usually susceptible to influenza and of weak constitution may develop serious complications in case of infection. Normally it is not a serious disease and one should not worry much about it.

 

          Genetics is the science of heredity, dealing with resemblances and differences between parents and their offspring. In genetics we study inheritable characteristics of plants and animals.

          The serious studies in genetics started during the last two centuries. In 1860, Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, made various experiments on pea plants and drew certain conclusions. He concluded through his studies that certain characteristics passed on from one generation to the next.

          The Danish Biologist Wihelm Johannsen called these factors Genes. It is now known that genes not only transmit hereditary traits but also control all the processes of life.

          In 1910, an American geneticist Thomas Hunt Morgan proved that genes are located in chromosomes and they are passed on to the offspring along with chromosomes. After this, Edward Tatum, Hargobind Khurana and others made significant contributions to the science of genetics. The scientists have discovered that nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) determine the characteristics of an organism.

          Today better varieties of food plants with stronger and more productive abilities have been developed by using genetic methods. Even better breeds of animals have been produced by this method. The study, named as ‘Genetic Engineering’ is now a modern branch of biological science.

          By using genetic engineering, the genetic structure of an organism can be changed. Subjects in modern genetic engineering include deletions, inventions, and transpositions of genes including micro-surgery. Pioneer attempts in this direction have been successful.

          By adding DNA from certain animal cells to the DNA of bacteriological cells we can even produce insulin. Genetic screening helps in determining several diseases. By taking some fluid from the uterus of a pregnant woman it can be determined whether the unborn child is a male or a female. Diseases such as haemophilia and sickle cell anemia can often be diagnosed in uterus by genetic counsellors. Early detection of genetic diseases helps doctors to treat the child for these diseases shortly after his birth.