My Science School

Guglielmo Marconi was born on 26th April, 1874 at Bologna in Italy. He studied Physics in a technical school in Leghorn, Italy and conducted his early experiments near Bologna. He was the man, who, most people say, invented Radio.

When in 1887 he came to know that Heinrich Hertz had discovered radio waves, he thought of using these waves for carrying messages. At that time messages were already being sent in Morse code using electric wires. When he was only 20, he managed to make an electric bell ring in one corner of a room with radio waves sent out from the other corner. The bell was switched on by electric pulse across about 10 metres by radio waves.

By 1895, Marconi was able to develop equipment that could transmit pulses up to a distance of about 2 km. But unfortunately the Italian Government did not take much interest in his work and he decided to try his luck in London. In 1896 he moved to London and during 1896 and 1897 gave a series of successful demonstrations of the wireless telegraphy apparatus he had developed. In May 1897, he transmitted Morse signals from Lavernock point in Wales to an island in Bristol Channel about five km. away. He subsequently started the Marconi Company in 1897.

Two years later i.e. in 1899 he transmitted a radio signal across the English Channel covering a distance of about 50 km. In 1899 he also equipped two U.S. ships to report to newspapers in New York City the progress of the yacht race for the American Cup. On December 12, 1901, the letter S was sent in Morse code across the Atlantic Ocean. The world then realized the tremendous possibilities of this new means of communication. In 1909 he received the Nobel Prize for Physics. He later worked on shortwave wireless communication, which constitutes the basis of nearly all modern long distance radio transmission. In 1930 he was chosen the President of the Royal Italian Academy.

This great physicist and inventor died on July 20, 1937.

 

 

               Aryabhatta was a great mathematician and astronomer of ancient India. The first artificial Indian satellite, ‘Aryabhatta’ launched on April 19th, 1975 was named after this famous Indian mathematician.

               Aryabhatta was born in 476 AD at Kusumapura (Pataliputra), India. He was a noted astrologer and mathematician of his times. He was the first astronomer in the world to arrive at the currently accepted theory that the earth is round and that it rotates on its own axis and travels around the sun, thus causing day and night. His works are still available. He was one of those known to have used Algebra for the first time. In 499 AD he wrote a book entitled Aryabhatiya. Written in a concise and scientific manner and in couplets it summarizes the contemporary knowledge of the science of mathematics. It was a famous book of the period and deals with astronomy and spherical trigonometry. In that book 33 rules of arithmetic, algebra and plane trigonometry were given.

                Aryabhatta gave an accurate approximation for pi (), as 3.1416 and introduced the inverse sine function into trigonometry.

               Aryabhatta made many contributions to the sciences of mathematics and astronomy. He was one of the most learned persons in King Vikramaditya’s Court. This great man died in 550 AD. 

            A gun is a weapon that fires bullets from a tube called a barrel. First some explosive is filled then the bullet is placed inside the barrel. A spiral groove cut in the gun barrel make the shells spin as they flow through the air. When the explosive is ignited, it produces large amounts of hot gases. These hot gases expand very quickly and hit the bullet. The force brings out the bullet from the barrel at a very high speed. Although it cannot be accepted as proven, it is believed that the earliest guns were manufactured both in China and in North Africa in 1250 AD.

            The earliest representation of an English Gun is contained in an illustrated manuscript dated 1326 AD available in an Oxford Library.

            The heavy cannons were first used in about 1350 AD. They were mounted on a wooden support. A gunner placed some gunpowder in the open end of the barrel, called the muzzle. He then rammed it down deep into the closed end called the breech. Then he put a cannon ball next to the powder into the barrel. The gun was fired by placing a lighted wick into a hole in the breech. The wick ignited the gunpowder and the cannon were fired. Sawai Jai Singh, the ruler of Jaipur, commissioned cannon on wheels in 1720 which is the largest cannon on wheels in the world. Named as Jaivana, this had a 20 ft. long barrel and weighed 50 tonnes; it required 100 kg gunpowder for a single shot and had a range of 35 km.

            During the 16th century, pistols and other sorts of guns became common but all these were loaded from the muzzle. In 1800 came guns which fired pointed shells that exploded when they hit their targets. During the 19th century, a different kind of gun was invented. This gun was loaded from the back and instead of a metal ball, cartridges were used in it. The cartridges were placed near the back of the gun.

            A cartridge has a metal or paper tube containing a bullet and some powder. This was enclosed by a cap. The cap lies at the back of the cartridge. It contains a small amount of explosive. This explosive is very sensitive and is exploded by striking it with a firing pin. This explosion gives a jolt to the bullet and it comes out. By the 19th century, breech loading rifles and pistols were in general use.

            In 1835, an American inventor, Samuel Colt invented a pistol which when fired threw out a revolving bullet. So, he called it a revolver. It contained a chamber that held five or six cartridges. When the trigger was pulled, the chamber turned round and lined up a cartridge with the barrel. Modern revolvers are very similar to those made by Colt.

            During the 19th century, rifles became popular. Now they came to be fitted with magazines to hold cartridges. These rifles had a bolt beside the breech. These rifles were used on a very large scale during the two World Wars. Inventors developed Muskets Rifles and machine guns for long distance shooting during the end of 2nd World War.

            These were automatic light guns that kept on firing bullets as long as the trigger was pressed. After this, heavy guns known as field guns were developed. Modern field guns weigh about four tonnes. Shells used in these weigh about 40 kg and have a range of about 14 km. The barrels are made of the highest grade of steel and these guns are very expensive. In modern guns a hammer set off an explosion that drives a shell or bullet from the barrel.  

               Ludwig van Beethoven was one of the greatest musicians in the history of music. His name and work still enchants the music lovers all over the world. He was a German, born in 1770 in a family of professional musicians. He learnt the basics from his father and later he also studied music under the guidance of great composers like Mozart and Haydn. Beethoven composed some of the greatest music that included symphonies, concertos, choral and chamber music. In his youth he was a well-known pianist and was admired by many famous people that included the aristocracy.

               It is said that adversity brings the best in a person and Beethoven had his share of such circumstances. He didn’t have a happy family life. His mother died when he was 17 and his father began drinking heavily. He learnt his music lessons from his father during the sober intervals of his father’s drinking bouts. He had to look after his two young brothers playing the roles of both mother and father. He left Bonn and sought his fortune in Vienna. But the most tragic episode began when he started becoming deaf at the age of 30. But his deafness could not deter him from composing music; rather he began to concentrate more vigorously and deeply. The depth of human feeling he generated from his pain and sufferings provided him the necessary motivation and inspiration to create some great music.

               Beethoven’s music was full of noble ideas and contained a variety of themes. They seemed to tell of struggles between evil forces. In his opera Fidelio, the heroine defends her husband against an evil tyrant. In his Ninth Symphony the great choral ending is a celebration of liberty. The main tune of this symphony is now used as an ‘International Anthem’ for the European community. In some of his quartets and piano sonatas, his music reached beyond anything anyone had yet imagined. Some of his music was then unplayable but now considered as masterpieces. His brilliance lies in the scope of expressions in his music as well as in the technical inventiveness.

               This great composer died in 1827 but his music has left a deep imprint in the world of music. 

               Perhaps no other city had acquired so prominent a place as Rome had in the ancient history of the world. Now the capital city of Italy, Rome is also a great cultural centre of the world situated on the banks of River Tiber, 27 km from the Mediterranean sea. The influence of Roman civilization was widespread covering the fields of art, culture, architecture, sports, education, administration, warfare and empire building, etc. Proverbs like ‘Rome was not built in a day’ or ‘Be a Roman when in Rome’ reflect the great culture and civilization of this ancient city. But do you know when was Rome founded?

               According to an old legend Rome was founded in 753 B.C. The legend, as told by the Roman writer Livy about 750 years later, says that the city was founded by twin brothers Romulus and Remus. The twin brothers (some say they were twin gods, sons of Mars — the god of war) were abandoned at birth as they were thrown into the River Tiber in a basket by their uncle who usurped the throne. But when a she-wolf heard the babies crying, she rescued them from water and gave her milk to suck. Later a shepherd brought them up as his own sons. When they grew up they killed their wicked uncle and ascended the throne. They began building a new city on one of Rome's seven hills. But a quarrel between the two brothers led Romulus to kill Remus before the completion of the city. Romulus became the sole ruler and the city was called Rome after the name of Romulus.

               Rome was built on seven hills and the valleys in between them. The seven hills were: Palatine, Capitoline, Aventine, Caelian, Esquiline, Qurinale and Viminale. The legend says that Romulus first built the city with a small settlement on the Palatine hill which was the most isolated of hills. The common belief says that several small tribes established settlements on the seven hills which gradually grew up to form the city of Rome.

               It is said that Rome was founded on April 21, 753 B.C. The ancient Romans celebrated that day and it is still a national holiday.

The long successful journey of Indian cinema started in 1913 with the release of the silent film Raja Harishchandra. Alam Ara became the first sound film in 1931. The films of 1930s had themes of social protest and the earlier phase was confined to romantic, historical and mythological themes. But the big turning point to Indian cinema came in 1953, taking it at par with International standards. Do you know who was the person responsible for carrying Indian cinema into international arena?

He was none other than the genius film-maker Satyajit Ray. He was born in Calcutta in 1921. He started his career as a commercial artist before making films. His first feature film ‘Pather Panchali’ (Song of the Road). This film was his most notable one for its realistic portrayal of everyday life and the artistic composition of its camera work that earned him worldwide recognition.

Ray had a special vision of Indian reality – hard, unbearably truthful yet moving. He was not just a great cine director but had superb mastery over other related cinematic work. He was a great writer, good composer and one of the best dialogue writers. He had a sound knowledge of cinematograph. Ray composed the music for most of his films.

Satyajit Ray made 28 full length feature films and a few documentaries. Among his most famous films, Pather Panchali, Aparajito, Apur Sansar, Charulata, Goopy Gyne Bagha Byne, Satranj ke Khiladi, Nayak and Aagantuk, occupy a special place in the minds and hearts of cine lovers.

His films got wide popularity especially in USA and France. The French government awarded him ‘The Legion of Honour’ — the highest award in France. He also won the Magsaysay award in 1967. Dada Saheb Phalke award was given to him for the year 1984. The Indian Government decorated him with ‘Bharat Ratna’ in 1992. But the happiest moment in his life came when he was informed of winning the special Oscar Award for life time achievement in 1992.

This great son of India passed away in 1992 at the age of 71 and thus came the end of a master craftsman.

 

            Pleasing sensation of sound to the ears is known as music. In other words, music is an organized sound with rhythm and melody. Irregular or unorganized sound which creates unpleasant sensation to the ears is called noise.

            Do you know what the seven notes of music are? It is a must for a beginner to understand what actually these notations are and how they are used? These notations are: Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa. In Western music these are known as Doh, Ray, Me, Feh, Soh, Lah, Te, Doh. On the basis of these scales, musical harmony is produced. Now the question arises how musical scales were prepared?

            Musical scales were invented by a monk named Guido di Arezzo. He lived between 990 - 1050 A.D. Before him, i.e. at the beginning of 9th century, harmonized music began and used in Church with some notations. But in practical sense, there were no musical notes as such. There was only directional music which consisted only of different symbols.

            Tones of musical scale have definite frequencies. In a nutshell, when frequency of the sound of music is increased, the note we hear goes up and when it is decreased, the note goes down. Each note has a special place depending upon the intensity of a musical sound. Thus it tells the difference between Sa and Sa for instance.

             The modern world of music has developed various musical systems. It has seen many dramatic changes. Uses of recording and synthesizers have helped the development of ‘concrete music, as they are now called. In such music natural sounds are combined to stimulate musical effects. Applications of electro-magnetic musical instruments are common nowadays. Since late 1960s electronic music has been linked to computer composition. New signs or notations are being invented to meet the needs. The late 20th century has also seen the revival of folk music with its traditional flavours and beauties.

            Stanley Laurel and Hardy Oliver, popularly known as Laurel and Hardy, formed one of the most celebrated and lovable comedian teams and still considered as one of the most successful comedy duo of the Hollywood.

            Laurel, whose real name was Arthur Jefferson, was born in 1890. He was an English comedian. As a stage actor, in most of his performances, he played such roles which typically exhibited in a combination of dances, music and clowning. He subsequently travelled to America and started appearing in American films since 1917. Similarly, Hardy came from Georgia – USA. He was born in the year 1892. He first appeared on stage at the age of 8 only. He started film acting in 1914.

            Both appeared in dozens of silent films before they began their successful partnership in 1927 in a silent comedy Putting Pants on Philip. In the next thirty years they made talking pictures and achieved great success with films like Sons of the Desert (1934), Way Out West (1937) and Blockheads (1938).

            Their humours came from the contrast between the small, thin and confused Laurel and the big, fat and irritable Hardy. They made over 200 films between 1927 to 1945 in a style shaped by them, which ranged from simple visual jokes to slow paced funs to charm the appreciative audience. Famous cine critic Charles Barr remarked in his monograph on “Laurel and Hardy” (1968) that Laurel and Hardy were the most universal of comics in range and in appeal. The truth is that their work was extremely variable and grew upon until they were hilarious, irresistible and cherished.

            With the passing away of Hardy in 1957, the journey of the successful duo ended. And in 1965, Laurel also breathed his last at the age of 75.

            Kho-kho is a game involving speed and control. It is believed to have originated in Baroda (Gujarat). In 1959 the rules for this game were framed and the same year the kho-kho federation was formed in Vijawada (Andhra Pradesh).

            This game is played by two teams each having 9 players. One match is played in two innings. The kho-kho field is rectangular in shape and measures 34 metres by 16 metres. There are two rectangles X and Y and within this rectangular field, each rectangle measuring 16 metres by 4.8 metres. At M and N there are two wooden poles. MN is a central lane, 24.4 metre long and 30 cm wide. There are eight small squares 30 cm by 30 cm, on the lane. The eight players of the fielding team sit on these squares and each player sits in this square with his/her face in opposite direction of the next player. The ninth player stands near the pole. The player standing near the pole is called the chaser while three players of the other team who stand in the field are called runners. They are to be played out by the players of the first team by touching them. The player standing near the pole chases and gives a ‘kho’ is spoken at the time of touching the player. Immediately this player stands and runs and tries to touch out the player of the other team. When these three players of the second team are declared out the other three players take their place in the field. They are also touched out. When all the nine players are touched out the same process is repeated again with the opponent team.

            The time for one innings is 7 minutes. If all the players of the second team are touched out in less than seven minutes, this team again sends its players in the field. The first team’s score increases with every player of the second team being touched out. After the first innings is over the second team plays and scores the points. Whichever team scores maximum points is declared the winner.

 

            Karate is an unarmed martial art employing kicking, striking and blocking with arms and legs. He who knows the art of karate can defeat his enemy without using any weapon. A karate expert can defeat his opponent in only one attack. Judo is the art of self-defence while in karate; actual physical contact is strictly limited. To avoid injuries during combat, all punches, blows, strikes and kicks are controlled and pulled back before contact.

            Karate is a Japanese word which means ‘empty hand’. In karate bodily power is concentrated at the striking point and the instant of impact. Striking points include the hands, the ball of the foot, heel, forearm, knee and elbow. All these points are hardened by practicing blows against padded surfaces or wood. A karate expert can break several inches thick wooden boards or asbestos sheets by the strike of his bare hand or foot. Timing, tactics and spirit, however, are considered as important as physical toughness.

            In karate, blows and kicks are stopped within an inch of contact. Sporting matches commonly last only 3 minutes. As a sport it involves both mock fights and formal examinations for various grades of skill. If a competitor is not able to have a clean attack, judges give the decision on the basis of movements and defence techniques. Performances are rated by a panel of judges as in gymnastics.

            Karate evolved in Asia over a period of centuries, becoming systematized in Okinawa in the 17th century. It was introduced in Japan in the 1920s. Today, there are several schools of training in the world Championship title in karate was instituted in 1970.

            Originating in ancient China and popularized by the Japanese, karate has now attained worldwide popularity.

            Like the Olympic and Commonwealth Games, the Asian Games is the sports festival of the Asian countries held in every four years.

            The origin of Asian Games goes back to 1947 when the Asian Relations Conference held in New Delhi decided to organize an international games meet for Asian countries on the lines of Olympic Games – i.e. once in four years. Since then the games have grown to become Asiad - the biggest sports festival in Asia. The games have been held in the spirit of brotherhood among the Asian countries. In fact these have been something more than games because they include mutual understanding for exchange of techniques and ideas in sports, culture as well as to generate goodwill and affection among the Asian peoples. The Asian games include a number of sport events similar almost to Olympic Games; except some events which are not included in Olympic Games.

            The games include Athletics, Archery, Basketball, Boxing, Cycling, Diving, Badminton, Bowling, Football, Fencing, Golf, Handball, Hockey, Judo, and Kabaddi and so on.

            The previous Asian Games have been held in the following venues. 1951 – New Delhi, 1954 – Manila, 1958 – Tokyo, 1962 – Jakarta, 1966 – Bangkok, 1970 – Bangkok, 1974 – Tehran, 1978 – Bangkok, 1982 – New Delhi, 1986 – Seoul, 1990 – Beijing, 1994 – Hiroshima. It is significant that like a proverbial phoenix, Japan arose from the ashes to tell the world the greatness of human perseverance. The Hiroshima city opened its heart for the 12th Asian Games held in 1994.

            The 13th Asian Games will be again held in Bangkok, Thailand in the year 1998.

 

            It is known that the attempt to animate or make lively pictures goes back to the concept of magic lantern. But it was not until the end of 19th century that cinema actually arrived. Cinema was born silent.

            In the era of silent movies, Chaplin Charles Spencer, popularly known as Charlie Chaplin made his world-wide reputation for his work in the arena of silent cinema. It is interesting to note that even when talking pictures arrived in 1930s, he continued to make silent films although he subsequently made some talking films at a later stage. Let us discuss about the life and times of this great showman in brief.

            Charlie was the best loved comedian of silent era and always considered a friend of weaker and poorer people throughout his eventful life. Born in 1889 in South London he first appeared on the stage at the age of 5 in his mother’s entertainment theatre in London. But when his mother became ill, Charlie was sent to an orphanage. He however continued his participation in stage acting.

            As a teenage actor he went to America in 1910. Four years later, he began to appear in films and soon became a favourite with cinema audiences for his characteristic appearance with his famous moustache, peculiar hat, baggy trousers, boots and the familiar cane-stick. Being a man of conviction, he later took over to writing and directing films. In 1919 and he established the United Artists Film Company and started to make films of his own choice and ideas. Among the films he made, “The Kid” 91920), “The Gold Rush” (1925) were considered as best of the lot. He mostly played the role of a sad little man with no fixed home or occupation who wanders from place to place only to be hurt, abused and confused by powerful people. Similarly in the film “Modern Times” (1936) he portrayed the role of an exploited industrial worker. He also made a very bold and outspoken talking film like ”Great Dictator” (1940) – where he made a fierce but amusing attack on German Dictator Adolf Hitler and his Nazi followers.

            Later, he was expelled from the USA because he was suspected of supporting Communists and a ban was imposed over all his films there. However, in 1972 he returned in triumph to be awarded a special OSCAR for the tremendous effect he has had in making motion pictures. Two years before he died he was given a further honour when the title “Sir” was conferred upon him.

            Sir Charles Chaplin died in the year of 1977 at the age of 88.

 

            Golf is a cross-country game played by striking a small ball with variously-shaped clubs from a series of teeing grounds into a like series of holes on a golf course. The player who holes his ball in the fewest strokes is the winner.

            The game originally developed in Scotland in the 15th century and then spread all over the world from there. It is the most popular outdoor sport in the U.S. The Royal Burgess Golfing Society of Edinburgh claims to have been established in 1735.

            In modern golf, a solid rubber ball is used. Its weight is 16.2 ounces. Balls used in USA have a diameter of 1.68 inches while that of Britain have a diameter of 1.62 inches. A club is used to hit the ball. There is a set of 14 different clubs for playing golf. Some of them are made of wood while others are made of iron or some other metal.

            The game consists of striking the ball from a teeing ground into a hole by successive strokes in accordance with rules. The round consists of 18 holes. Standard course measures 6500 to 7000 yds (5900 to 6400m). Individual holes are separated from 100 to 600 yds (90 to 550 m). Some courses have only 9 holes. A hole measures 4-1/4 inches in diameter and at least 4 inches in depth. Some of the terms associated with the games are Bogey, Tee, Whole links, Put, Stymic, and Caddle etc.

            The game is played in two ways. One is called match play and the other stroke play. In match play, one player and his opponent play at the same time while in stroke play one player has to play with all players of the opponent team. The winner in stroke play is the player who holes his ball in the fewest strokes whereas in match play the winner is the player who wins the most individual holes.

            Golf is played by both men and women. In the passage of time, particularly after 1960, a set of new rules have been introduced in the method of playing this game. Some of the most major world golf titles are: The Open (1860), The US Open (1895), The US Masters (1934), The World Cup (formerly Canada Cup) (1953) etc.

            In games, athletics comprises a wide range of events and demand a variety of skills. We know that some competitions are made up of a number of events mainly related to athletics.

            Decathlon is one such men’s competition lasting for two consecutive days in which contestants take part in 10 track and field events. It was first introduced as a three day event at Olympic Games of 1912.

            The Decathlon events are divided in two consecutive days – the first day events include 100 metre running, long jump, short put, high jump and 400 metre running. The second day events consist of 100 metre hurdles; discuss throw, pole vault, javelin throw and 1500 metre run. Competitors are scored for their performance in each event according to a table prescribed by the International Amateur Athletic Federation (IAAF). The table has been changed several times to keep pace with the improvements of world records. For instance, first change was effective from 1912 to 1936 while decathlon was still a three day event, the second one from 1936 to 1950 (with minor revision in 1952). The third change was from 1952 to 1964. In the latest change, the table was introduced in such a fashion that favoured an athlete who could score evenly in all 10 events. The events are held in the listed set order. A competitor is considered to have withdrawn from the competition of he fails to take part in any of the listed events.

            The order of competing is drawn before each event. The IAAF rules are generally applied for each event although exceptions are there like participants are allowed only three trails in each field event and that three false starts in a track event result in elimination without points from that particular event. Points are awarded for achieving set times, heights and distances. In case of a tie, the competitor with most points in the majority of events wins.

            If the tie still exists, the person with most points in any one event wins. Similarly the seven combined events for women’s are called Heptathlon.

 

 

Name the space probe that was used to study the Sun.

The space probe Ulysses was launched in 1990 by a U.S. Shuttle under the joint project by NASA and European space Agency and arrived near the Sun in 1994 in a three and half years journey via Jupiter covering a distance of 150 million kilometers. It went into a polar orbit around the Sun and transmitted a large amount of useful data back to Earth.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Name the powerful optical telescope placed in Earth orbit.

The Hubble Space Telescope was launched into Earth orbit by the space shuttle “Discovery” in 1990, and is designed to transmit useful data about the universe better than Earth based telescopes.

In January 1994, a historic repair of its main mirror was carried out after 30 hours of space walks by five astronauts sent on a space shuttle at a cost of $ 360 million. NASA announced that it had repaired the fault. It now performs 10 times better than any ground based instruments.