What is the difference between the geographic poles and the magnetic poles?
The earth has a natural magnetic field and behaves as a magnet, influencing a mariner’s navigational compass. The north and south poles (magnetic) are points on the Earth’s magnetic axis. The earth spins on its geographic axis and not on its magnetic axis.
Amazon is the largest river in the world because it contains more water than any other river on the earth — it contains about 25% of all the water (excepting sea water) that runs off the Earth’s surface. The Amazon rises high up in the Andes Mountains in Peru, flows across a length of 6,448 km from Northern Brazil to the Atlantic Ocean and on the way it is fed by about 15,000 tributaries and sub-tributaries.
The true source of Amazon was discovered in 1971 by Loren McIntyre in the snow-covered Andes of Southern Peru. The Amazon begins with snowbound lakes and brooks, and from the confluence of two major headstreams, the Maranon and Ucayali, the river is called Amazon.
The Amazon was first discovered in 1499 by Vicente Yanez Pinzon — a Spanish sea captain who was a part of Columbus’ crew on his great voyage. As Pizon was sailing out of sight off the coast, he discovered that he was voyaging through fresh water. He moved shorewards to investigate and anchored in the mouth of the vast river.
One of the most intriguing things about the Amazon is that its tributaries are distinctly of different colours. The true source of the main river is 5,240 metres above the sea-level in Peruvian Andes, and this starts off as white or dirty yellow. All the tributaries to the Amazon which run through the Andes are similar in colour as they carry heavy quantities of whitish soil in their waters. Many of its other tributaries which originate in northwest Brazil and Venezuela are apparently black in colour. In fact, these rivers are very clear and dark red in colour because they flow over ancient bare rock formations, and are relatively free of sediment but laden with iron.
Of late, Amazon has been categorized as the longest river of the world along with river Nile. A latest survey of the length of Amazon puts it at 6,750 km which exceeds the length of Nile by 80 km. But which is longer is more a matter of definition of length of a river than the simple measurement of length.
From the available historical sources, Jericho is considered to be the oldest city in the world. It is located on the west side of Jordan near Israel. It is situated 825 ft below the sea level, some six miles north of the Dead Sea. The Archaeologists have uncovered 17 layers of settlements dating back to 5000 B.C. or earlier, signifying its continuity over the years.
In the biblical history, it is known as the first town captured by Israel and that its wall fell to blast of their trumpet.
Jericho is mentioned in the Old and new Testaments. Herod the Great established a winter residence there and died there in 4th B.C. There is evidence to prove the visit of Mesolithic hunters around 9000 BC, and of a long period of settlement by their descendants. To begin with their habitations included flimsy huts. From these huts solid houses were developed and the settlement spread to cover an area of about 10 acres. By 8000 BC the inhabitants had developed into an organized community capable of building a massive stone wall around the settlement. The construction of such a huge wall suggests that a population of around 2000-3000 persons inhabited the town. Thus, within a period of 1000 years, there had been a development from a wandering-hunting way of life to an agricultural settlement. For the next 2000 years, Jericho passed through the Neolithic stage. During 5000 BC people of this place started using pottery. Over the next 2000 years, occupation was sparse and possibly intermittent.
At the end of the 4th millennium BC, an urban culture once more appeared in Jericho as in the rest of Palestine. Jericho became a walled town again with its walls rebuilt many times. About 2300 BC there was once more a break in the urban life. Jericho of the Crusader period was on yet a third site, a mile east of the Old Testament site and here the modern town grew up. Its major expansion, however, came after its incorporation into Jordan in 1949.
An avalanche is a large mass of rock debris, snow, ice or soil that moves rapidly down a mountain slope, sweeping and grinding everything on its path. It takes place when a mass of material overcomes the frictional resistance of the sloping surface. It can be caused by spring rains, dry warm winds or violent vibrations produced by an artillery fire, thunder, man-made blasts or earthquakes. Changes in the depth, pressure and humidity of the snow itself can make one snow layer slide over another and result in an avalanche.
There have been instances where huge avalanches have blocked rivers and buried towns. They are commonly composed of bed-rock fragments, a few centimeters thick in diameter and include a lot of soil and dust. The rock avalanches are thought to ride on a cushion of compressed air that allows them to travel long distances. A debris avalanche usually occurs in unconsolidated earth materials when weakened by moisture.
Some snow avalanches occur during heavy snow storms. Sometimes they slide while the snow is still falling, but more often they occur after the snow has accumulated at a given site. One of the causes of snow avalanches is the slow formation of hexagonal cup-like ice crystals under the snow pack. The formation of these crystals creates a zone of weakness near the ground. These crystals act as a lubricant when the upper layers of the snow start sliding down the mountain. The wet avalanche is the most dangerous thing because of its massive weight, heavy texture and tendency to solidify as soon as it stops moving. The dry type is also equally dangerous because it’s entrapping of great quantity of air makes it act like a fluid.
Sometimes, explosives are used to break large avalanches to control their intensity. Other measures such as snow-fences, wall and snow-bridges are erected on hillsides to check the fury of avalanches.
Since the avalanches pose considerable threat to the mountain climbers, skiers, and travellers, they are being a subject of a lot of research and study. Geologists and scientists all over the world are working in close cooperation to identify the avalanche-prone areas and to monitor the danger of avalanches. Switzerland has established a Snow and Avalanche Research Institute to locate the avalanche-prone areas.
A rain forest is a warm and rainy place with a thick growth of trees. Because of heavy rains, the trees grow tall and close together. The tree tops are so thickly branched that they almost block the passage of the wind. The air is still and uncomfortable. The thick tree top also prevents sunlight from reaching the ground. It is difficult to walk through these areas. Along with a large number of trees, it also has many different kinds of animals. These include noisy birds, hungry crocodiles, lizards, snakes and jaguars. Thousands of insects of different types are also found in the rain forests. There is an ant called ‘army ant’ that eats anything that would not move out of its way. There are certain mosquitoes whose bite is fatal; sweat bees which crawl into people’s ears and noses, and ticks and flies bite their skin.
Most rain forests are located near the equator. The largest rain forest is the Amazon basin in South America. The temperature ranges from about 20 to 34°C. Thunderstorms occur about every three days. Areas of rain forests experience heavy rains upto 250 cms (100 inches). The tallest trees of rain forest form a covering of leaves called the upper canopy. The upper canopy may be 30 to 46 m above the ground. Smaller trees form lower canopies. The shade from the trees prevents about 99 percent of the sunlight from reaching the ground. Thus there is not much plant life on the forest floor. Dense vegetation close to the ground occurs in clearings and along rivers. These areas are sometimes called jungles.
There are different kinds of plant and animal life in rain forests. Tropical rain forests contain the greatest variety of wild life including the wealth of insect life. Many of these insects have wonderful forms of camouflage. Also more different species of trees are found in tropical rain forests than in any other kinds of forests in the world. The soil layer in the tropical rain forests is very good for farming.
The word Buddha literally means ‘The Enlightened One’. This was the title given to Siddhartha Gautama. He became the founder of the religion called Buddhism.
Buddha was born as a prince in the 6th century B.C. in a warrior community of Nepal called ‘Sakyas’. Although brought up in great luxury, he did not show any attachment to the material delights. Even when young, he had a sensitive and philosophical temperament. Though he had everything necessary for worldly pleasures, he was somehow dissatisfied.
One day Siddhartha went out of his palace grounds on his chariot to get a glimpse of the town. On his way he saw three, sights which he had never seen before: a sick man, an old man and a dead man. These had a deep impact on his mind and made him sad and thoughtful. He could sense the eternal truths of life and realized that life was full of sorrows and suffering. He wondered if sickness, old age and death ultimately grab everyone’s life then what was the goal of life and how men could best use the comparatively short lives they had on this earth. These questions kept on hunting his mind.
One night Siddhartha left his palace in the pursuit of his goal. He was then 29 years old, married and father to a son. He left behind his wife and infant son in the palace. He spent several years studying under various teachers, but none could impart him the wisdom he was searching for. Finally, travelling from one place to another he reached a place in North India, now called Bodh Gaya. There he sat for many days under a tree in deep meditation, until suddenly one morning he had a wonderful experience of a starting vision of what he had been seeking. The light that shone in him was the enlightenment he was searching for. Buddha delivered his first sermon at Benares on the banks of river Ganges.
Gautama Buddha died at the age of 80 at Kushinagar, near Benares. After him, his followers were divided into two sects: Mahayana and Hinayana. Buddhism is now followed in Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Sri Lanka, China, Mongolia, Korea and Japan.
The word Buddha literally means ‘The Enlightened One’. This was the title given to Siddhartha Gautama. He became the founder of the religion called Buddhism.
Buddha was born as a prince in the 6th century B.C. in a warrior community of Nepal called ‘Sakyas’. Although brought up in great luxury, he did not show any attachment to the material delights. Even when young, he had a sensitive and philosophical temperament. Though he had everything necessary for worldly pleasures, he was somehow dissatisfied.
One day Siddhartha went out of his palace grounds on his chariot to get a glimpse of the town. On his way he saw three, sights which he had never seen before: a sick man, an old man and a dead man. These had a deep impact on his mind and made him sad and thoughtful. He could sense the eternal truths of life and realized that life was full of sorrows and suffering. He wondered if sickness, old age and death ultimately grab everyone’s life then what was the goal of life and how men could best use the comparatively short lives they had on this earth. These questions kept on hunting his mind.
One night Siddhartha left his palace in the pursuit of his goal. He was then 29 years old, married and father to a son. He left behind his wife and infant son in the palace. He spent several years studying under various teachers, but none could impart him the wisdom he was searching for. Finally, travelling from one place to another he reached a place in North India, now called Bodh Gaya. There he sat for many days under a tree in deep meditation, until suddenly one morning he had a wonderful experience of a starting vision of what he had been seeking. The light that shone in him was the enlightenment he was searching for. Buddha delivered his first sermon at Benares on the banks of river Ganges.
Gautama Buddha died at the age of 80 at Kushinagar, near Benares. After him, his followers were divided into two sects: Mahayana and Hinayana. Buddhism is now followed in Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Sri Lanka, China, Mongolia, Korea and Japan.
The river Nile is the longest river of Africa and is considered the life breath of Egypt and Sudan. It is 6648 kms long and runs from the mountains of Tanganayike to the Mediterranean Sea through Africa.
Egypt is called the Gift of the Nile because its valley is extremely fertile mainly due to the yearly floods and it was this fertility that made its ancient people prosperous and helped them survive calamities. Their ancient religion was based on the Nile, and the lives of the ancient Egyptians center around the river. Here once thrived one of the oldest civilizations in the world going back to more than 5000 years B.C.
The headwater lakes — Victoria, Albert and Edward, are in the tropical country, south of the equator. Most of the rain there falls during the winter months. The great lakes hold this water and feed it into the Nile gradually during the entire year.
The Blue Nile and Atbara are the river that mainly cause floods and the humus and mud are distributed by the flood waters along the banks of the lower Nile. So the land there remains a green oasis which would have been a desert otherwise.
The immense importance of the Nile for Egypt is obvious from the fact that 95% of its population lives along its bank on less than one-thirtieth of Egypt’s land. After the construction of Aswan dam, the Nile serves Egypt in a much bigger way. The dam regulates the flood waters, generates hydroelectric power and irrigates thousands of acres of formerly unproductive land.
The true source of the Nile is in the mountains of the Congo whence the Kangera flows to Lake Victoria. The river Sebat and others flow into the Nile and increase its volume considerably. From this point onwards it is called the White Nile. The Blue Nile is the longest tributary of the Nile and has its source in Ethiopia like Lake Tana. At Khartoum the Blue and White Nile come together. There are six un-navigable cataracts between this place and the sea. In Sudan the cataracts are used to produce an enormous quantity of electricity. They are circumnavigated by waterways. The two very big dams built on the Nile, and the cataracts supply a large part of Egypt’s electric power.
Railway is one of the most important means of transportation today. Everyday thousands of trains travel on railway tracks throughout the world. While some carry passengers, others carry grain, coal, machinery and many other products. The fastest trains reach a speed of over 200 km/hr.
The highest railway line in the world is in Peru. It is a track on the Morococha branch of the Peruvian State Railways at La Cima at a height of 4,818 m (15,806 ft.) above the sea-level.
The highest railway station in the world is the Condor station in Bolivia at a height of 4, 786 m (15,705 ft.) The world’s longest run railway track is one of 9,438 km (5,864 miles) on the trans-Siberian line from Moscow to Nakhodka, Russia. The highest speed recorded on any National rail system is 515 km per hour by the French high-speed train TGV on 18th May 1990.
The Grand Canyon in Arizona USA is a natural wonder of the world. It is famous around the world for its colourful rocks and majestic spectacle. At certain points, it appears like a magic city of rocks, with temples, towers and castles of dazzling colours all around. Do you know how this great wonder came to be formed?
The Grand Canyon was formed by erosion of the Colorado River Valley. The mighty force of waters of Colorado River cut out this great gorge in the course of many thousand years. Even now, year by year, the rushing Colorado continues to cut deeper into the bottom of the gorge. This is the deepest gorge anywhere in land.
The Grand Canyon is about 347.2 kilometres long, upto 20 km. wide and the depth is as much as 2 km at places.
For years, the Colorado River has slowly cut through the high plateaus of northern Arizona, exposing strata that are millions of years old. These strata are of great interest to geologists because they offer an insight into a long stretch of earth’s history.
At the bottom of the Canyon, where the Colorado River flows, is an ancient Precambrian rock that contains fossils of primitive algae. The fossils of dinosaurs, elephants, trees and other lives of those times are found in the higher strata. The most recent rocks occur near or at the top of the Canyon. The chains of links of its fossils provide an idea about the evolutionary process.
Each year, more than 2 million tourists visit the Grand Canyon to wonder at the marvel. In 1919, the United States Government created the Grand Canyon National Park, thus preserving the wealth of the plant and animal life that has become a part of this unique environment.
The International Date Line is an imaginary line extending from the North Pole to the South Pole. It passes through the Pacific Ocean where, according to an international agreement, the date changes. As the Earth rotates, each day begins and ends on this line.
The date line is a consequence of the worldwide use of time-keeping systems arranged in such a manner that the local noon corresponds approximately to the time at which the Sun crosses the local meridian of longitude. The line is necessary because the Earth is divided longitudinally into 24 one-hour tie zones (15 degrees longitude each) which make one full day on Earth. Since Earth rotates eastward, the time on the clock progresses westward round the world. Thus 12 O’clock noon occurs in London (0 degree longitude) five hours before it does in Washington D.C. (75 degrees west of London), and eight hours before at San Francisco (120 degrees west of London). So, when it is noon in London, it is midnight at the place 180 degrees to the west.
On either side of the 180th meridian, the time is the same. Let us take the example of a traveller going completely around the Earth, carrying a clock that he advanced or retarded by one hour whenever he entered a new time zone, and a calendar that he advanced by one day whenever his clock indicated midnight. When he returns to his starting point he would find that the date according to his calculations was different by one day from the date kept by persons who had remained at the starting point. That’s why a traveller moving eastward across the line sets his calendar back by one day than the one travelling westward. It has a strange effect. That means if you cross the date line going eastward, you gain a day while those travelling westward lose a day.
The date line, however, has some variations from the 180th meridian to allow for land areas or islands. The line bulges eastward through the Bering Strait to take in eastern Siberia and then westward to include the Aleutian Islands with Alaska. South of the equator, it bulges eastwards again to allow various island groups to have the same day as that of New Zealand.
Bonsai is the art of developing and growing dwarf trees. The bonsai specimens are ordinary trees and not hereditary dwarfs. They are dwarfed by a system of pruning the roots and branches and training the branches by typing with wire. Any tree or shrub would be called a bonsai if grown in a suitable container and kept dwarf by special horticultural techniques.
This art originated in China about 1000 years ago, but it was pursued and developed by the Japanese in the 12th century. In fact, bonsai is a Japanese word which means ‘tray planted’.
The inspiration for bonsai, in fact, comes from the nature itself. The trees grown in rocky crevices of high mountains or overhung from the cliffs remain dwarfed throughout their lives.
We have heard about the boatpeople of Vietnam and Cambodia who sailed and inhabited aboard the boats in the Hongkong bay for months together. We also know that tourists enjoy their holidays in houseboats whenever they find an opportunity to stay in them. But it is quite interesting to learn that there are people in certain parts of the world who reside in houseboats permanently. But why do they do so?
According to economists, growth of population beyond a desirable limit often creates a major hindrance to the economic development of a nation. The scarcity of habitable land is another offshoot of the problem. The high-rise buildings or skyscrapers are the results of this scarcity of land areas and solve the problem to a great extent by accommodating people within the available space. Alternatively people in some places build their house on boats — either due to the non-availability of sufficient land or land is too expensive for them to make their shelters.
As per the available statistics and information, most of the boat-dwellers live in China, Japan and nearby islands. Many Chinese families spend their entire lives on boats — moored just off the overcrowded island of Hongkong. They call these houseboats as Sampans which are mostly seen along the coast and rivers in China. Sampans have facilities inside it to cook, eat, work and sleep. They are separated from within into small cabins. The roots of Sampans are made of mat-type materials.
But life in a houseboat is not smooth and sometimes dangerous as well. Tropical storms and huge waves set off by an earthquake can destroy or sink such boats moored in shallow seas.
In India, luxurious houseboats are stationed in the waters of ‘Dal Lake’ — in the state of Jammu and Kashmir. The great poet and noble laureate Rabindra Nath Tagore composed some of his famous poems on a houseboat stationed in the bed of river Padma, now in Bangladesh.
