My Science School

          The village of Khajuraho is in the Chattarpur district of Madhya Pradesh. This place was the capital of Chandela kings from 9th to 13th century. These kings built 85 temples between 950 A.D and 1050 A.D. Out of these only 20 temples survive today. These temples were dedicated to Siva, Vishnu, Brahma and the Tirthankaras.

          During this age India was called the Asian El Dorado. The people were prosperous and happy and the fertile land yielded plenty of crops, fruits and flowers. This climate was most conducive to creative efforts and temple-building emerged as its chief form.

          The Khajuraho temples are of the Indo-Aryan type. Each temple stands on a high platform and the customary enclosure is absent. The temples are in three groups and occupy an area of about eight square miles. The western group, the largest and most important, is situated at the axis of the Lalguan-Rajnagar road. The eastern group comprises Brahmin and Jain shrines close to the present Khajuraho village. The southern group is almost one mile away from the south of the village.

          The western group comprises the oldest Chaunsath Yogini, the Kendriya Mahadeva, the Devi Jagadambe, Chitragupta temple, Vishwanatha and Nandi temples. The other temples of this group are Parvati temple, Lakshmana temple, Matangesvara and Varah temples.

          The Eastern group consists of Vamana temple, Javari temple, Brahma temple, Adinatha temple, Parsvnatha temple and several other Jain temples.

          The Southern group has only two temples — Duladeo temple and Chaturbhuj temple.

          The temples of Khajuraho present a unique art and sculpture. They have engraved figures of gods and goddesses, celestial nymphs and hand-maidens (‘apsaras’ and ‘surasundaris’), bold serpents and leonine beasts and myriads of women. ‘Mithuna’ couples (rioting figures of love and lust) have accorded Khajuraho a distinctive status. At the centre of each temple there is the statue of an honoured god.

          In addition to these temples there is a small Archaeological Museum at Khajuraho, showing mainly sculptures collected on temple sites. The temples are visited by thousands of visitors every year. 

          Empires rise and fall but the nation survives. India has survived as a great nation because unity in diversity has become an inherent feature of our country built over thousands of years. One of the most important pillars of this unity is the political unification, the present one being a gift of the British rules though the pre-independence British Empire was much larger. But long before the British Empire, India had witnessed great empires at different phases of its history; for example during the reigns of Ashoka, Samudragupta, Harshavardhana, Akbar, and Aurangzeb etc. But when did the first great Indian Empire arise?

          During the pre-Christian era some great civilizations had flourished in India but they had their geographical and political limitations. Thereafter arose some well-organized and better governed states but they were very small independent kingdoms. It was only after Alexander’s invasion that India saw the growth of its first ever large empire, under the adventurous leadership of Chandragupta Maurya. Initially Chandragupta was the Commander-in-Chief of the army of Nanda dynasty who were then ruling South Bihar in Eastern India. For some reason or other, Chandragupta attempted a revolt but was unsuccessful. He fled away and met Alexander the Great seeking his co-operation. When Alexander left India putting behind one of his generals in charge, Chandragupta again approached and got the help of this general. He became the ruler of Punjab and Bihar. A great political thinker of those times, Chanakya, also helped Chandragupta in his mission since he had also to settle scores with the Nanda dynasty. Thus the seeds of the first great Indian Empire were sown in around 321 B.C. and the rule of the great Maurya dynasty began. Later he extended his empire from the mouth of river Ganges in the east to the mountains of Hindukush between modern Pakistan and Afghanistan. This was the first really large and powerful centralized state in India.

          After empire building Chandragupta concentrated on defence and public administration. He maintained an elaborate spy network and an efficient bureaucracy. Though there was autocratic government at the top yet democracy prevailed at the village level.

          Later, Ashoka the Great became the third ruler of this great empire under whose reign the empire was further extended to the whole of India except the Deep South and south-east. The state progressed and flourished in all fields. 

           Jalal-ud-Din Mohammed Akbar, the greatest of the Mughal Emperors of India, founded in 1582, a new religion called Din-i-Ilahi (or Divine Religion). This religion tried to bring together the Hindus and Muslims by combining the good points of Hinduism and Islam. Akbar wanted Hindus and Muslims to worship God at the same shrine in a common ritual. 

            Din-i-Ilahi was essentially an ethical system, prohibiting such sins as lust, sensuality, slander and pride and laying emphasis on virtues of piety, prudence, abstinence and kindness. The soul was encouraged to purify itself, through yearning for God, celibacy was condoned and the slaughter of animals was forbidden. There were no sacred scriptures or a priestly hierarchy in this newly-founded religion.

          But this religion did not attract many followers and practically died with Akbar. 

     Akbar (1542-1605) was the son of Humayun and the grandson of Babur. He was born on October 15, 1542 at Umarkot, Sind which is now in Pakistan. Akbar became the governor of Punjab at the age of 13, and succeeded his father, Humayun, to the Mughal throne in 1556. With able generalship, he overthrew his rivals and embarked upon a career of conquest, which by 1562 gave him domain over Punjab and Multan, the basin of the Ganges and Jamuna rivers, Gwalior to the south and Kabul in Afghanistan. Subsequently he crossed the Narmada River into the Deccan, and intended his dominion southward. By 1605 his empire contained 15 provinces or subahs and stretched from the Hindu Kush Mountains to the Godavari River and from Bengal to Gujarat.

           In order to preserve the unity of his empire, Akbar maintained good relations with the non-Muslim population. He won the loyalty of the Hindus as well as other communities also. He reformed and strengthened his central administration, centralized his financial system and reorganized tax collection procedure. Akbar was loved by everyone.

          The Panama Canal and the Suez Canal are the two most important man-made waterways of the world. The Panama Canal is an inter-oceanic waterway connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans through the Isthmus of Panama. Ships sailing between the east and west coasts of the United States shorten their journey by about 8000 nautical miles by using this canal!

          The history of the Panama Canal construction is very interesting. In the 16th century, the Spanish conceived the idea of constructing a canal across the Isthmus. In 1846 the United States concluded a treaty with Columbia. In 1855, the United States extended financial help for the project. The Panama Canal company was formed which was headed by Ferdinande Lesseps — the builder of the Suez Canal. However, within ten years due to faulty planning, graft and the ravages of yellow fever, malaria and cholera, the company became bankrupt. In 1894, the new Panama Canal Company reorganized the work, but made little progress due to lack of money: Following Panama’s declaration of Independence from Columbia in 1903, and the conclusion of the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty between USA and Panama the canal building rights passed into U.S. hands. Work began in 1904 and finally the Canal was completed and first opened to traffic in August 1914. Since then many additions have been made. Its length is about 82 km. On 31st December 1999, Panama will take over full control of the canal from US. 

          The Canal consists of short sea-level sections at each end, three pairs of locks that lift ships to 26m above sea level, a 32 mile elevated section that includes Gatun Lake and a narrow eight-mile long excavated Channel, known as Gaillard Cut, running through the continental divide. The dimensions of its lock chambers (1000 ft in length, 110 ft in width and 41 ft in depth) permit most commercial ships as well as main navy ships to pass through the canal. Only very big ships cannot pass.

          The canal locks operate by gravity flow of water from Gatun and Madden lakes. The locks are of uniform length, width and depth and permit simultaneous transit of ships in either direction. Each lock gate has two leaves 65 ft wide and 7 ft thick, set on hinges. The gates range in height from 47 to 82 ft. Their movements are controlled by motors. They are operated by a control tower.

          The ships, including the waiting time, require 15 hours to negotiate the canal. Once a ship has been authorized to proceed, the average transit time through the canal, however, is seven to eight hours in deep water. The traffic through the Panama Canal has raised from 807 transits in 1916 to 15,523 transits in 1970. The cargo carried in 1970 amounted to 132,500,000 tons. Presently, average transits of ships carrying goods have been increased manifoldly.

          The Canal has helped to reduce greatly the travelling distance for ships. Ships no longer need to go around Cape Horn to go from the east to the west coast of America. From one coast of North America to ports on the other side of South America, the distance has been shortened by 3500 miles. Ships sailing between Europe and East Asia or Australia save about 2000 miles by using the canal.

          In view of the increasing size of bulk carriers and container ships and the inability of the present canal to accommodate the large aircraft carriers of the U.S., there have been proposals to expand the present waterway.