My Science School

The history of world cinema dates back to 1895 when the first motion picture was produced and exhibited in Paris and since then cinema has never looked back. Recently in 1995, it completed a hundred years and this occasion was celebrated all over the world with much pomp and ceremony. Cinema originated in its raw form only as moving pictures but with the gradual passage of time, it steadfastly kept on improving its form and presentation to reach its present status. The primary reason for its continuous progress and tremendous technical advancement was the mass popularity it achieved as a major source of entertainment till the advent of television.

To go back to the birth of cinema, the root can be traced to a machine called kinetoscope which was invented by Thomas Edison in 1891. This machine showed moving pictures for the first time. But a little later, two French brothers called Auguste and Louis Lumiere built a similar machine called cinematographe. This machine could project pictures from a piece of film onto a screen as this had a camera as well as a projector. The pictures were shown one after another in rapid succession and the images on the screen appeared to move. The Lumiere brothers produced the world’s first motion picture in 1895 and gave the world’s first public show in Paris in the same year.

The early films were in black and white, the movements were very jerky and they had no sound. They are called ‘silent cinemas’ as the images did not produce any sound effects on the screen. In the initial days, only news items and real events were shown in the films but the later film-makers made films with their own stories. The actors played the role of the imaginary characters in the stories. The Lumiere brothers made the first story film ‘Watering the Gardener’.

The silent cinema proved to be a great success though tickets were very expensive and as a result huge profits were earned. Consequently large investments were made to improvise and upgrade the technology which gave rise to the use of various types of special effects in the movies. Dance and song sequences, lavish costumes and specially designed sets or background were gradually added to make the scenes more impressive and glamourous.

The phenomenal growth in popularity of the films laid the foundation of a star system even in those days. An unknown girl named Florence Lawrence (later renamed Mary Pickford) became the world’s sweetheart and the first star to earn a million dollar from acting. After the First World War the American films became grand successes when they cheered the war-torn world and entertained the people thus enabling them to forget their miseries and bitter memories of the war. Hollywood city in California became the film city of the world.

Continue reading "How did cinema commence? "

          These days we often watch this sport in television where a horse, with its rider, is seen jumping and crossing over several hurdles on a specially prepared course. This event is known as show-jumping. In this competition, a horse and its rider are supposed to overcome a series of walls, fences and other obstacles as neatly as possible to gather maximum points to win the competition. Bonus points are also awarded to those who complete the course successfully in the fastest time. Horses, one after another, attempt to clear them to earn the points.

          It is very interesting to know how points are won and lost during the course of the competition. For example, when a horse jumps a brick-wall and kicks any of the bricks off the wall then it would lose points. Also while crossing the wooden poles, care should be taken that none of the poles is displaced by the horse so that full points can be scored in this part. There are also other types of obstacles like mounds, and ditches filled with water etc. and the horses must be able to clear them. There are also cases which lead to a serious loss of points, e.g. when the horse refuses to jump a fence. A participant also incurs a heavy loss of points when a horse throws its rider out of the saddle.

          Over the years, show-jumping has acquired a wide popularity as people now watch the competition on their TV screens. The event is full of adventure and hence thrilling.

 

          One of the most famous detectives of all times, Sherlock Holmes has become a legendary figure in the minds of people through the works of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. People all over the world know him as an eccentric person, with amazing powers of concentration and brilliance. He was a detective par excellence with a superb analytical mind that smoked a pipe and played a violin - typical traits as portrayed by Sir Doyle. Sherlock Holme’s character and lifestyle are so interestingly depicted in Doyle’s novel that many of Holme’s fans have searched for his house at 221 B, Baker Street, London, which infact, did not exist. 

          Sherlock Holme’s house did not exist because he himself never existed in reality. He was only a fictious character born out of the imagination of the novelist Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, making his first appearance in 1887 in one of Doyle’s works. He appeared as a detective in other subsequent works of Doyle and became a household name. But Doyle projected this character so brilliantly and vividly that people often wondered if he existed in reality. Children mistake him to be a character in flesh and blood and consider him to be their ideal whenever they aspire to be a detective.

          In the novel, Sherlock Holmes used to be assisted by Dr Watson, another character in Doyle’s novel, who was rather dim and slow in comparison to Holme’s brilliance. Among these stories of Doyle, which are set in London at the end of the 19th century, the most famous is The Hound of Baskervilles.

 

          Though, with the rise of pop music in the 1960s, jazz started fading from the public eye yet its contribution to the world of occidental music can never be under-mined. In fact, pop owes much to jazz as a source of its origin. But what is jazz and how did it originate?

          Jazz is a kind of music which was first played by the Black American musicians in the 1800s and enjoyed much popularity in the western world till the 1960s. It was greatly influenced by the musical traditions of the black slaves of Southern USA. Their musical traditions mainly consisted of the traditions of their West African ancestors as well as their own distinctive style of spirituals.

          In jazz, the players use unexpected rhythm. They can play any notes they like but such changes must fit the music played by the rest of the band. This implies that one or more of the players can create new musical ideas and play them as they go along. These way most jazz musicians express their feelings and ideas which, therefore, permit them to improvise while performing. Jazz players often manage to get a personal tone which distinguishes them from others. ‘Swing’ is another important feature of jazz which means that emphasis is laid on the off-beats in the music.

          The earliest jazz was played in New Orleans, USA, but later Chicago became the centre of jazz from where it developed into an international music. Now many new jazz styles have arisen as musicians of different countries have added their own ideas and traditions to the music to create their own variety. Jazz greatly enriched itself through its inherent flexibility and being receptive enough to accommodate new elements.

          Among the few outstanding players of jazz of the earlier times, Joe ‘King’ Oliver and Louis Armstrong were well-known.

 

          Ballet is a theatrical form of dance based on a strict technique. The dancing form is very beautiful and precise which, generally, presents an idea or tells a story and is accompanied by music.

          The origin of ballet can be traced to a kind of dance which appeared in Italy in the 1400s. But the present form of ballet, as it is danced today, started in France during the 1500s. Ballet was officially recognized as a form of art in France during the reign of King Louis XIV in the 1600s.

          In Ballet, a ballerina is a female dancer and the chief female dancer is called the prima ballerina. The person who plans and arranges the dancing is called a choreographer. The whole group of performers is called corps de ballet.

          Strict rules and traditions are followed in classical ballet. There are standard positions for the arms, legs and hands, as well as special movements that allow the dance a smooth flow. Classical or traditional ballet is accompanied by orchestras, elaborate scenery and splendid customs. The dancers do not speak a word though the dance itself communicates an idea or tells a story. The performers convey the story through their body movements.

          Incorporation of more modern and liberal dance steps have changed the colour of classical ballet as we find in modern ballets of present times. Though the dance originated in Italy and later developed in France, yet Russians are considered to have excelled others in performing this art. Among the most famous ballets composed, ‘Swan Lake’ and ‘The Sleeping Beauty’ by Tchaikovsky are the all time favourites. Ballet has also produced a number of great stars - Anna Pavlova occupies a prominent place among them.

          Rigorous training and hard work are necessary to become a good ballet dancer and for this reason some students prefer to learn it at a very young age.

          Man has lived in the mountains since prehistoric times. He often used to journey across difficult mountain regions. However, mountaineering became a sport about a hundred years ago. It does not involve any competition among people. Mostly many individuals, making up a party, climb together as a team. They depend upon one another for their protection and safety. It is a challenging sport.

          Mountaineers attempt to scale peaks in a convenient group. As they move up the dangerous peaks, they are generally tied together with a rope at a distance of about six metres. They do climb all at once. The leader climbs first and guides the rest. Mountaineers use special equipments for climbing. They wear special climbing boots, the soles of which are made of moulded rubber. It helps them gain a firm foothold on the dry rocks as well as snow. They wear protection suits against cold and wind at higher altitudes. They wear snow goggles for protection against the blinding glare. Each team carries a 40 metre long rope. They also carry things like oxygen cylinders, a compass, ice-axes, karabiners and pitons for different uses.

          The earliest recorded rock climbing was made in the British Isles by Sir Robert Moray who climbed the Stac Na Biorrach, St. Kilda (71.9 m 236 ft.) in 1698.

          Only about the year 1949 mountaineering became popular as a sport and climbers approached it scientifically. On 29 May, 1953, Tenzing Norgay of India and Edmond Hillary of New Zealand succeeded in scaling Mount Everest for the first time. And within the next five years all the top ten peaks in the world were conquered. 

          Swimming is the skill of staying afloat (on top of water) and moving through water. Swimming is a healthy exercise, and learning it may help you in times of emergency and crisis.

          In ancient times swimming was taught to warriors in Rome, Assyria and Greece. Gradually it became competitive and was included in the 1896 Olympics as a sport. To start with only males could participate in it. From the year 1912, women too were allowed to contest. Today swimming is a very popular sport throughout the world. Many swimming competitions take place on the national and international levels.

          There are several styles of swimming. The most efficient way of travelling through water is by a stroke called the ‘crawl’. With this stroke, the body cuts through the shallowest amount of water. The crawl is the fastest of all swimming styles and is used by record-setting champions. The crawl was developed in Australia early in the 20th century from a stroke used by the people of the South Seas.

          Other major styles of swimming include the backstroke and the breaststroke. Breaststroke was used in Europe as back as in the 16th century. With these strokes, the body of the swimmers enters more deeply into the water and therefore they are slower.

          There are separate races for different strokes and over different distances. The fastest swimmer is declared the winner. Now long distances like the length of a channel or a lake are set for the competitors of swimming competitions. 

         The Sphinx Stela of Amenhotep II (1450 -1425 B.C) records that he stroked a boat for some three miles.

          According to the available records, sometime in 2000 B.C. the Mesopotamians used to hold a kind of boat race on the river Euphrates. A few centuries later, the Egyptians started having rowing competitions on the river Nile. Today, boat racing is a popular sport in the world.

          Rowing is divided into two basic types of competition. Regatta events are knocking out competitions, ending with a race between two or more finalists. Head, the other type of the river races, which are not used in international championships, are processional; the boats set off at intervals and the result is decided by their times over the course. Regattas are held over a stretch of river, lake, coast or artificial course while Head races are held over a stretch of river of variable length.

          The first boat race of modern times was held in England in 1716. This was organized by an actor called Thomas Doggette. He arranged for a single-sculling race (light racing boat having a single rower) among the Thames ferrymen. This became a popular and regular annual feature. It is called Doggette’s Coat and Badge.

          The first boat race at the University level took place between Oxford and Cambridge at Henley on Thames in 1829. This was an eight-oar race, i.e. eight participants rowing one boat. By the late 19th century, rowing as a sport was known in most of the countries. Since the World War II, however, boat racing became a professional and prestigious sport.

          In such competitions the number of oarmen in a boat varies. There are eight, four or even two oarmen in one boat. In the eight oar competitions there is also a coxswain (man in charge of a rowing boat and its crew) to steer the boat. In other contests, the boat is steered by connecting the rudder (broad flat piece of wood) to a pivoted pad under one of the oarmen’s feet.

          The European and Americans are very good at rowing but now the Chinese too give stiff competition. 

          The highlight of long distance racing in the Olympics or in any other great athletic meet is the marathon. It gets its name from a legendary run made by a Greek soldier, Pheidippides, in 490 B.C. He raced from the plains of Marathon to Athens to convey the news of a great victory for Athens over an army of invading Persians. The distance he covered was 40 km (25 miles).

          In remembrance of the legendary run, in 1896, at the first modern Olympics in Athens, it was decided to stage a long road race. Most of the 16 runners in the first Marathon were Greek, but they were untrained and inexperienced and most of them soon collapsed with exhaustion. The winner, a Greek called Spiros Louis, was finally joined by the Greek royal family who jogged alongside him on the last lap to the finishing line. His victory was a great sensation. The first Boston marathon, the world’s longest-lasting major marathon, was held on 19 April, 1897 for a distance of 39 km (24 miles 132 yds). And the first national marathon championship was that of Norway in 1897.

          Since 1924, the marathon has been fixed at 42.195 kilometres (26 miles 385 yds.) This distance was also used for the race at the 1908 Olympic Games, run from Windsor to the White City Stadium – a distance regularly run in about two and a half hours nowadays. However, as marathon courses differ in distance, so the International Amateur Athletic Federation does not list a world record for this event. The marathon race is a fascinating event because neither age nor training seems to play a vital role in winning this race. 

          Originally the game of Pok-ta-Pok was played in the 10th century BC, by the Olmecs in Mexico and closely resembled the basketball in its concept. ‘Ollamalitzli’ was a variation of this game played by the Aztecs in Mexico as late as the 16th century. If the solid rubber ball was put through a fixed stone ring the player was entitled to the clothing of all the viewers.

          Modern basketball which may have been based on the German game Korbball was played for the first time in mid-December 1891. This game was invented by the Canadian born Dr James A. Naismith. He was the physical education instructor at the Training School of the International YMCA College at Springfield in Massachusetts, USA. He was asked to invent a new game to enthuse the students as they were bored with their daily physical education classes.

          Naismith used ideas from games such as the Red Indian lacrosse, hockey, football, soccer and blended them with his own ideas and invented basketball. This new game unlike lacrosse did not require a stick. It did not even involve kicking the ball, as in soccer. It involved throwing the ball into the basket hence it was named basketball. 

          Soon the new game aroused the interest of the bored students at the YMCA. News of the game spread rapidly to other parts of America. During the next ten years it was introduced in Canada, France, Britain, China, India and Japan.

          The first goals were two peach-baskets. The iron hoop and net were introduced two years later. Initially people had to climb a ladder to get the ball from the net. But later a hole was made at the bottom of the net so that the ball could drop through.

          The game gained popularity after the Second World War. It is played by two teams, each having five players. Its field is rectangular, measuring 92 ft (28 m) in length and 50 ft (15 m) in breadth. Close to the centre of both the smaller sides, two baskets are suspended from two poles at a height of 10 ft (3 m). To score a goal a team has to send the ball through the basket.

          The first basketball match, played under modified rules, was on 20th January, 1892. Americans are considered the best players of basketball. The International Amateur Basketball Federation was founded in 1932; it has now dropped the word ‘Amateur’ from the title. It was first included in the Olympic Games in 1936. 

          The game of polo is considered the oldest game in the world. It was played in Persia (modern Iran) during the 1st century A.D. Some scholars even claim that it was invented by the Persians around 2000 B.C. However, Iran is generally regarded as its originator. From Iran it was carried to Arabia and from there to Tibet. In Tibet, it was called ‘Pulu’. In fact, the word ‘polo’ has been derived from ‘pulu’ which means ‘ball’.

          In India polo was introduced by the Mohammedan conquerors in the 13th century. From here it was taken to England in 1860. Nowadays, it is played not only in India but also in Argentina, England, USA, and some other countries of the world. The earliest polo club of modern times was the ‘Cachar Club’ in Assam.

          Polo is played with a stick and a ball on horseback. The polo stick is called a ‘mallet’. It is an outdoor game. Its grass-field is 274.32 metres long and 146.3 metres wide. There are lightweight goal posts, 7.3 metres apart at each end. A goal is scored by hitting the ball through these goal posts. Two teams, each having four players play, the game. To be good at this game one has to be an expert horse-rider.

          Polo is played in six, seven or eight rounds. These are called ‘chukkers’. The duration of one chukker is 7.5 minutes. After every chukker there is a break.

          Polo is an expensive game and only the rich can afford it. Perhaps that’s why it is called the game of the princes.

          The first game of elephant polo was played at Jaipur in 1976 which was watched by about 40,000 spectators. In 1978, a camel polo was played at the same venue. Now, people have started playing even cycle polo. The world’s biggest trophy for polo is the Bangalore Limited Handicap Polo Tournament Trophy. It is a cup six feet in height.

Football is one of the most popular games in the world; the best football player may logically be regarded as the most celebrated one. Pele has been one of the best football players of the world. According to a French newspaper, Pele, in an informal poll, was voted to be the best player of the century.

Pele was born in a poor family on October 23, 1940 in Brazil. His full name is Edson Arantes Do Nascimento. But people affectionately call him Pele. He is a Negro and thus has earned the name of Black Pearl of football. He is also called ‘King’ of football. Because of his poverty he had to drop out from school in the fourth class. He used to play soccer barefooted with a football made from cotton cloth. Once even he stole peanuts from a goods train to buy a leather football. Later he took up a job with a cobbler on a meagre salary.

At an early age of 11, he came in contact with the famous football instructor Waldimar Do Brito. Under his coaching Pele became an ace football player. When he was only 18, he became a member of the Brazilian Football Team and participated in the world football competition. Because of his skillful play Brazil became world champion in football. Subsequently he took part in the world football competition of 1962, 1966 & 1970.

Wearing the number 10 shirt, that was to become his trade mark, Pele scored 1216 goals in 1254 matches between 7th September 1956 to 2nd October 1974 – a world record for a single soccer player.

Pele has become a legend in his lifetime. Even today he receives more than 300 letters every week, most of which carry just the two-word address, “Pele, Brazil”. Now he has retired from football and established a football academy to train the budding footballers of his country.

Football has enabled Pele to earn a big fortune, but for him the most precious possession is a letter written to him by a blind boy from Columbia. The letter reads: “I have not been able to see any of the thousand goals scored by you. But after I heard that you had scored 999 goals, I constantly prayed to God to enable you to score the 1000th goal”. Pele says that he wept like a child after reading this letter.

 

          Skating probably originated in Scandinavia about 2,000 years ago when skaters used blades made of bone which were shaped and polished untill them provided a flat gliding surface. Then they were bound to the feet with thongs. The word “skate” originated from a Dutch word Schaats that dates back to the 16th century. Gradually skating branched itself into different forms and now it is played either on ice or on a level floor, by means of ice-skates or roller-skates attached to the skater’s boots. Ice-skates have a steel blade and roller-skates have four wheels each.

          Today competitive skating has many different forms that include figure, dance and speed skating – each of which is popular in many countries. Figure skating is one of the three main ice-skating sports, the other two being speed skating and ice dancing. It is so called because it involves skating patterns called figures on ice.

          Figure skating can be aptly described as ballet on skates that demand great body control and a feel for music whereas speed skating demands strength, stamina and fitness. Figure skating competitions have two main parts: compulsory figures or movements and movements of one’s own choice. Compulsory movements involve the skating of exact movements according to a special schedule and may be skated on both skates and only one whereas free skaters can leap, skin or make any other un-prescribed movements. The compulsory movements are skated first followed by the original program or dance and then the free skating or dancing.

          There are three types of figure skating: Single skating, Pair skating and Ice dancing. In Pair skating and Ice dancing there is a dance couple consisting of a man and a woman. In Ice skating the original program is treated as a separate part of an event but in pair skating it includes the compulsory moves. In the competition, the judges mark each competitor individually and the winner in each part is the skater or pair or dance couple placed first by the majority of the judges. Marks are awarded for technical merit (composition) and artistic impression (presentation). Specific time limits are prescribed for each section in each category. Music is played during the competition and the competitors are free to choose their own music. 

               Today people play many games of cards all over the world. Bridge is an international game of cards. In addition to this, people in every country play various other games of cards. Card playing is an indoor game. Do you know how this game was started?

               Some historians believe that the game of cards began in Egypt, but some others are of the view that it was started either in India or China. According to the written records, card playing was prevalent in Europe in the thirteenth century. It was called ‘tarots’ or picture cards. They were used for fortune telling or simple game. At that time a pack consisted of 22 cards with different kinds of pictures imprinted on them. Subsequently the number of cards in a pack was raised to 78 by adding 56 cards like aces, kings, queens, etc. Later the French reduced its number to 52. These 52 cards were separated into four divisions with four sets of 13 cards each. These were given the names of spade, heart, diamond and club. The English also adopted the same 52 cards system. Gradually the game of cards spread to the whole world.

               In the beginning, the cards used to have hand-painted pictures and as such they were very costly. Naturally common people were unable to purchase these costly cards. The invention of printing led to the production of countless varieties of cheap and beautiful cards which even the common people could buy. Initially the cards used to be circular or square in size, but now they are rectangular with a standard length of 8.5 cms and breadth of 6 or 5.5 cms.

               The game of cards is a very good source of entertainment. However, some people play cards for gambling which is undesirable. The gamblers not only waste time but money also.

 

          Chess is regarded as a game of the kings. Probably this is the oldest game. Some people are of the opinion that this game was started some 5,000 years ago. The word ‘chess’ finds its origin in the Persian word ‘Shah’ which means ‘King’. This gives the impression that chess was started in Persia, but this is not true.

          In fact, the game of chess was started in India. This was called Chaturanga – the names for traditional four army divisions. It is said that in ancient India, kings and emperors used to play chess to satisfy their lust for fighting in a harmless manner. During Moghul period this game became a fashion of Royal families. This game remained confined to India for about 2000 years. But later on, it spread to Persia, Arabia and finally to the countries of Europe. Gradually it became popular in all the countries of the world. Today the chess pieces include kings, queens, rooks, knights, bishops and pawns. The two most important and powerful pieces on each side are the king and queen. The king is the only piece that can not be captured but only check-mated.

          The game of chess reached England in the year 1255. The first international competition of chess was held in London in 1851. In 1924, the International Federation of Chess Players was founded in France. Dr Emanuel Lasker of Germany was the world chess champion for 27 years, from 1894 to 1921. Amongst the women chess players, Vera Menchik of Great Britain retained the world championship from 1927 till her death in 1944. The youngest chess champion of the world is Gary Kimovich Kasparov of Russia, who won the title on 9 November, 1985 at the age of 22 years and 210 days.

           Chess is now very popular in India. India has produced its own chess Grand Masters and International Masters. Among the world class chess players of India Viswhanathan Anand and Dibyendu Barua are prominent today.

           Nowadays the world competition of chess is held every three years. Also the artificial intelligence of computers have started challenging the human brain in the game of chess. The recent win of Kasparov over the IBM computer still proves the supremacy of man over machine.